ࡱ> @)` R2)bjbjx*{{94   (N(N(N,t t t 8 u Dd sd $  " " " N*NOP[ l gK\vv^Q{/f_\v V:N[ݏSN6qĉ_0FO/f v^ N/f@b gvRirTN!jN7h kYbNwSv:NNHNFUNtTpSRt N T0[Nv:S+R N/fW,gRv N T /fN Nq_TvQW,gRv~X[(W:S+R0 [(u]zTvuNO@w͑QُN]zT[6qĉ_vOea'`0@bNNN:N[~]zTvuNeg_N/fN7h0FOُyce_euN$Ny]zTKN͑v:S+R0~]zT NP[(u]zT7hOS0R6qĉ_vP6R0V:N[Ng;Nvv^ N/fSOsvQR'` vQ[[NNSPN6R\OPgev'`(0keՖQX_{brV ُ1\N(ϑ ͑RR^TSRv'`(0l;u_{ gZWVv/eg Mb;u^Oc~'} v^Nl;u NSN gk_c ˆ~ *r0{|\GrTlT[vQs ُNyr_ Ncp[NTFuTsNRirvv\] FO[N:\sN4lu{|Rir(uNLRv;NSOMO  >\Gr0 NǏ NAmbulocetusv i~g NSN wQ sSO:\>\Gr [N_NPsN|7hǏSÒ萄v N NFdReg8np0'YvT8^S_\O/f4l-NMRLvSR:g0(W[NSNMA~kvF0W N AmbulocetusLRweg^8^PsNwmr0keu |/fޏc@wF0Wu}TTwm mu}Tviry0 Desert Formation The deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of the Earth's land surface, have in recent decades been increasing at an alarming pace. The expansion of desertlike conditions into areas where they did not previously exist is called desertification. It has been estimated that an additional one-fourth of the Earth's land surface is threatened by this process. Desertification is accomplished primarily through the loss of stabilizing natural vegetation and the subsequent accelerated erosion of the soil by wind and water. In some cases the loose soil is blown completely away, leaving a stony surface. In other cases, the finer particles may be removed, while the sand-sized particles are accumulated to form mobile hills or ridges of sand. Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation typically results in the loss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial quantities of water. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatly reduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion rates. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established. In some regions, the increase in desert areas is occurring largely as the result of a trend toward drier climatic conditions. Continued gradual global warming has produced an increase in aridity for some areas over the past few thousand years. The process may be accelerated in subsequent decades if global warming resulting from air pollution seriously increases. There is little doubt, however, that desertification in most areas results primarily from human activities rather than natural processes. The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental pressures. Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasing pressures to provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be able to respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desert margins, though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results. Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the desertification processes: overcultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering, and overirrigation. The cultivation of crops has expanded into progressively drier regions as population densities have grown. These regions are especially likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that crop failures are common. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the natural vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover and susceptible to wind and water erosion. The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion. Firewood is the chief fuel used for cooking and heating in many countries. The increased pressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of woody plants so that many cities and towns are surrounded by large areas completely lacking in trees and shrubs. The increasing use of dried animal waste as a substitute fuel has also hurt the soil because this valuable soil conditioner and source of plant nutrients is no longer being returned to the land. The final major human cause of desertification is soil salinization resulting from overirrigation. Excess water from irrigation sinks down into the water table. If no drainage system exists, the water table rises, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. The water evaporates and the salts are left behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air and water from reaching the underlying soil. The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. Once the soil has been removed by erosion, only the passage of centuries or millennia will enable new soil to form. In areas where considerable soil still remains, though, a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface.  Paragraph 1: The deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of the Earth's land surface, have in recent decades been increasing at an alarming pace. The expansion of desertlike conditions into areas where they did not previously exist is called desertification. It has been estimated that an additional one-fourth of the Earth's land surface is threatened by this process. 1. The word threatened in the passage is closest in meaning to %Restricted %Endangered %Prevented %Rejected Paragraph 3: Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation typically results in the loss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial quantities of water. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatly reduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion rates. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established. 2. According to paragraph 3, the loss of natural vegetation has which of the following consequences for soil? %Increased stony content %Reduced water absorption %Increased numbers of spaces in the soil %Reduced water runoff Paragraph 5: There is little doubt, however, that desertification in most areas results primarily from human activities rather than natural processes. The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental pressures. Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasing pressures to provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be able to respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desert margins, though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results. 3. The word delicate in the passage is closest in meaning to %Fragile %Predictable %Complex %Valuable 4. According to paragraph 5, in dry periods, border areas have difficulty %Adjusting to stresses created by settlement %Retaining their fertility after desertification %Providing water for irrigating crops %Attracting populations in search of food and fuel Paragraph 6: Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the desertification processes: overcultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering, and overirrigation. The cultivation of crops has expanded into progressively drier regions as population densities have grown. These regions are especially likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that crop failures are common. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the natural vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover and susceptible to wind and water erosion. 5. The word progressively in the passage is closest in meaning to %Openly %Impressively %Objectively %Increasingly 6. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is often associated with raising crops? %Lack of proper irrigation techniques %Failure to plant crops suited to the particular area %Removal of the original vegetation %Excessive use of dried animal waste 7. The phrase devoid of in the passage is closest in meaning to %Consisting of %Hidden by %Except for %Lacking in Paragraph 9: The final major human cause of desertification is soil salinization resulting from over irrigation. Excess water from irrigation sinks down into the water table. If no drainage system exists, the water table rises, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. The water evaporates and the salts are left behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air and water from reaching the underlying soil. 8. According to paragraph 9, the grounds absorption of excess water is a factor in desertification because it can %Interfere with the irrigation of land %Limit the evaporation of water %Require more absorption of air by the soil %Bring salts to the surface 9. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as contributing to desertification EXCEPT %Soil erosion %Global warming %Insufficient irrigation %The raising of livestock Paragraph 10: The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. Once the soil has been removed by erosion, only the passage of centuries or millennia will enable new soil to form. In areas where considerable soil still remains, though, a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface. 10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. %Desertification is a significant problem because it is so hard to reverse and affects large areas of land and great numbers of people. %Slowing down the process of desertification is difficult because of population growth that has spread over large areas of land. %The spread of deserts is considered a very serious problem that can be solved only if large numbers of people in various countries are involved in the effort. %Desertification is extremely hard to reverse unless the population is reduced in the vast areas affected. 11. It can be inferred from the passage that the author most likely believes which of the following about the future of desertification? %Governments will act quickly to control further desertification. %The factors influencing desertification occur in cycles and will change in the future. %Desertification will continue to increase. %Desertification will soon occur in all areas of the world. Paragraph 7:%The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. %The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. %This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion.% 12. Look at the four squares [%] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing. Where would the sentence best fit? 13-14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Many factors have contributed to the great increase in desertification in recent decades. % % % Answer Choices %Growing human populations and the agricultural demands that come with such growth have upset the ecological balance in some areas and led to the spread of deserts. %As periods of severe dryness have become more common, failures of a number of different crops have increased. %Excessive numbers of cattle and the need for firewood for fuel have reduced grasses and trees, leaving the land unprotected and vulnerable. %Extensive irrigation with poor drainage brings salt to the surface of the soil, a process that reduces water and air absorption. %Animal dung enriches the soil by providing nutrients for plant growth. %Grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation in semiarid lands. ST{Hh 1. %2 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is threatened. It is highlighted in the passage. To threaten means to speak or act as if you will cause harm to someone or something. The object of the threat is in danger of being hurt, so the correct answer is choice 2, "endangered." 2. %2 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 3. The correct answer is choice 2, reduced water absorption. The paragraph explicitly states that the reduction of vegetation greatly reduces water absorption. Choice 4, reduced water runoff, explicitly contradicts the paragraph, so it is incorrect. The "spaces in the soil" are mentioned in another context: the paragraph does not say that they increase, so choice 3 is incorrect. The paragraph does not mention choice 1. 3. %1 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is delicate. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, "fragile," meaning "easily broken." Delicate has the same meaning as "fragile." 4. %1 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 5. The correct answer is choice 1: border areas have difficulty "adjusting to stresses created by settlement." The paragraph says that "expanding populations," or settlement, subject border areas to "pressures," or stress, that the land may not "be able to respond to." Choice 2 is incorrect because the paragraph does not discuss "fertility" after desertification. Choice 3 is also incorrect because "irrigation" is not mentioned here. The paragraph mentions "increasing populations" but not the difficulty of "attracting populations," so choice 4 is incorrect. 5. %4 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is progressively. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 4, "increasingly." Progressively as it is used here means "more," and "more" of something means that it is increasing. 6. %3 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 6. The correct answer is choice 3, "removal of the original vegetation." Sentence 4 of this paragraph says that "the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the natural vegetation," an explicit statement of answer choice 3. Choice 1, lack of proper irrigation techniques, is incorrect because the paragraph mentions only "overirrigation" as a cause of desertification. No irrigation "techniques" are discussed. Choices 2 and 4, failure to plant suitable crops and use of animal waste, are not discussed. 7. %4 This is a Vocabulary question. A phrase is being tested here, and all of the answer choices are phrases. The phrase is "devoid of." It is highlighted in the passage. "Devoid of' means "without," so the correct answer is choice 4, "lacking in." If you lack something that means you are without that thing. 8. %4 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 9. The correct answer is choice 4, "bring salts to the surface." The paragraph says that the final human cause of desertification is salinization resulting from overirrigation. The paragraph goes on to say that the overirrigation causes the water table to rise, bringing salts to the surface. There is no mention of the process "interfering" with or "limiting" irrigation, or of the "amount of air" the soil is required to absorb, so choices 1,2, and 3 are all incorrect. 9. %3 This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. Choice 3, "insufficient irrigation," is the correct answer. Choice 1, "soil erosion," is explicitly mentioned in paragraph 2 as one of the primary causes of desertification, so it is not the correct answer. Choice 2, "global warning," is mentioned as a cause of desertification in paragraph 4, so it is incorrect. Choice 4, "raising of livestock," is described in paragraph 7 as another cause of desertification, so it is incorrect. The passage includes excessive irrigation as a cause of desertification, but not its opposite, insufficient irrigation, so that is the correct answer. 10. %1 This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted: The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. The correct answer is choice 1. That choice contains all of the essential information in the highlighted sentence and does not change its meaning. The only substantive difference between choice 1 and the tested sentence is the order in which he information is presented. Two clauses in the highlighted sentence, "The great difficulty of reversing the process" and "the numbers of people affected," have simply been reversed; no meaning has been changed, and no information has been removed. Choices 2,3, and 4 are all incorrect because they change the meaning of the highlighted sentence. 11. %3 This is an Inference question asking for an inference that can be supported by the passage. The correct answer is choice 3; the passage suggests that the author believes "Desertification will continue to increase." The last paragraph of the passage says that slowing or reversing the erosion process will be very difficult, but that it may occur in those areas that are not too affected already if rigorously enforced anti-erosion processes are implemented. Taken together, this suggests that the author is not confident this until happen; therefore, it can be inferred that he thinks erosion will continue. The passage provides no basis for inferring choices 1, 2, or 4. 12. %2 This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 7 that represent the possible answer choices here: %The raising of live stock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. %The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. %This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion. % The sentence provided, "This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing," is best inserted at Square 2. The inserted sentence refers explicitly to relying on "livestock in certain regions." Those regions are the ones described in the sentence preceding square2, which states that raising livestock is "a major economic activity in semiarid lands." The inserted sentence then explains that this reliance "makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing. " The sentence that follows square 2 goes on to say that "The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are. . ." Thus, the inserted sentence contains references to both the sentence before square 2 and the sentence after square 2. This is not true of any of the other possible insert points, so square 2 is correct. 13-14.%1, 3, 4 This is a Prose Summary question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices are 1, 3, and 4. Choices 2, 5, and 6 are therefore incorrect. Sыe l ovb_b l o]~`SncN0Wthby~VRKNN NgяQASt^ckN`Nv^ib _0l oS/fc{|
    egr ǏR xO Ǐ^Lpn01uNNS[^XR NN[|ߘ\Oirvy i]~ibU\0Revr^qv:SWۏL0ُN:SW_ gS~8^OSur^e @bNQ\Oiry i1Y%/f_ck8^vN`0'YYpeQ\Oirvy iNHQyd)Y6q i Q\Oir k6eTSOYu N'YbyR0W ^8^[fΘRT4lO0 (WJSr^e0W:S IjW/f;Nv)Y6q i [\ur{Q/fS_0WvNy;N~Nm;mR0(WN*N0W:SǏϑr{Q[\uO[ ivbyQ\ W0W'YϑTxx08^ KN egv1\/fW0WlxSTRO0 (W_YV[(gPg/f(uegZPmTRpvg;Nqe0NSXR&^egvSROONN'Yϑ xO(gPg [􁸋YW^TaNQghTV'Ybyh(gTLp(gQ\0 TeNN'YϑO(upr^vRirclir\O:NfNqe T7h[WX N)R V:NُNs5vWXbRBRT iir%{QDn\ NOQVR_WXS_-N0 bW0Wl oSvgTN*N;NN:NV }(WNN{|Ǐ^Lpn[WXvvxS0LpnYYOv4ln0R0W N4lMO0GPYl gc4l|~vX[(W HN0W N4lMO NGS bn㉄vvR&^0RWXhb04lRST vRYu(WNhb b_b}vrv0WXB\ ُN0WXB\;bkNzzlT4lc0W^ NvWX0 l oS_8^%N͑ ُ/fV:N gwO^v0W:STpeϑ^'YvNS0RNl oSvq_T N`ll oSvۏ zuQl oSv^b4N@w]'YvV0NeWXO Q~ǏQ~v0R NCSt^veMbONuevWX0N'YϑWXNOX[[}Yv0We NN*N%N( gRvOb?eV{T ivRegObs gW0W0 Early Cinema The cinema did not emerge as a form of mass consumption until its technology evolved from the initial "peepshow" format to the point where images were projected on a screen in a darkened theater. In the peepshow format, a film was viewed through a small opening in a machine that was created for that purpose. Thomas Edison's peepshow device, the Kinetoscope, was introduced to the public in 1894. It was designed for use in Kinetoscope parlors, or arcades, which contained only a few individual machines and permitted only one customer to view a short, 50-foot film at any one time. The first Kinetoscope parlors contained five machines. For the price of 25 cents (or 5 cents per machine), customers moved from machine to machine to watch five different films (or, in the case of famous prizefights, successive rounds of a single fight). These Kinetoscope arcades were modeled on phonograph parlors, which had proven successful for Edison several years earlier. In the phonograph parlors, customers listened to recordings through individual ear tubes, moving from one machine to the next to hear different recorded speeches or pieces of music. The Kinetoscope parlors functioned in a similar way. Edison was more interested in the sale of Kinetoscopes (for roughly $1,000 apiece) to these parlors than in the films that would be run in them (which cost approximately $10 to $15 each). He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several. Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission. About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices. These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience. With the advent of projection in 1895-1896, motion pictures became the ultimate form of mass consumption. Previously, large audiences had viewed spectacles at the theater, where vaudeville, popular dramas, musical and minstrel shows, classical plays, lectures, and slide-and-lantern shows had been presented to several hundred spectators at a time. But the movies differed significantly from these other forms of entertainment, which depended on either live performance or (in the case of the slide-and-lantern shows) the active involvement of a master of ceremonies who assembled the final program. Although early exhibitors regularly accompanied movies with live acts, the substance of the movies themselves is mass-produced, prerecorded material that can easily be reproduced by theaters with little or no active participation by the exhibitor. Even though early exhibitors shaped their film programs by mixing films and other entertainments together in whichever way they thought would be most attractive to audiences or by accompanying them with lectures, their creative control remained limited. What audiences came to see was the technological marvel of the movies; the lifelike reproduction of the commonplace motion of trains, of waves striking the shore, and of people walking in the street; and the magic made possible by trick photography and the manipulation of the camera. With the advent of projection, the viewer's relationship with the image was no longer private, as it had been with earlier peepshow devices such as the Kinetoscope and the Mutoscope, which was a similar machine that reproduced motion by means of successive images on individual photographic cards instead of on strips of celluloid. It suddenly became public-an experience that the viewer shared with dozens, scores, and even hundreds of others. At the same time, the image that the spectator looked at expanded from the minuscule peepshow dimensions of 1 or 2 inches (in height) to the life-size proportions of 6 or 9 feet.  Paragraph 1: The cinema did not emerge as a form of mass consumption until its technology evolved from the initial "peepshow" format to the point where images were projected on a screen in a darkened theater. In the peepshow format, a film was viewed through a small opening in a machine that was created for that purpose. Thomas Edison's peepshow device, the Kinetoscope, was introduced to the public in 1894. It was designed for use in Kinetoscope parlors, or arcades, which contained only a few individual machines and permitted only one customer to view a short, 50-foot film at any one time. The first Kinetoscope parlors contained five machines. For the price of 25 cents (or 5 cents per machine), customers moved from machine to machine to watch five different films (or, in the case of famous prizefights, successive rounds of a single fight). 1. According to paragraph 1, all of the following were true of viewing films in Kinetoscope parlors EXCEPT: %One individual at a time viewed a film. %Customers could view one film after another. %Prizefights were the most popular subjects for films. %Each film was short. Paragraph 2: These Kinetoscope arcades were modeled on phonograph parlors, which had proven successful for Edison several years earlier. In the phonograph parlors, customers listened to recordings through individual ear tubes, moving from one machine to the next to hear different recorded speeches or pieces of music. The Kinetoscope parlors functioned in a similar way. Edison was more interested in the sale of Kinetoscopes (for roughly $1,000 apiece) to these parlors than in the films that would be run in them (which cost approximately $10 to $15 each). He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several. 2. The author discusses phonograph parlors in paragraph 2 in order to %Explain Edison's financial success %Describe the model used to design Kinetoscope parlors %Contrast their popularity to that of Kinetoscope parlors %Illustrate how much more technologically advanced Kinetoscope parlors were 3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence from the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. %Edison was more interested in developing a variety of machines than in developing a technology based on only one. %Edison refused to work on projection technology because he did not think exhibitors would replace their projectors with newer machines. %Edison did not want to develop projection technology because it limited the number of machines he could sell. %Edison would not develop projection technology unless exhibitors agreed to purchase more than one projector from him. Paragraph 3: Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission. About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices. These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience. 4. The word readily in the passage is closest in meaning to %Frequently %Easily %Intelligently %Obviously 5. The word assistance in the passage is closest in meaning to %Criticism %Leadership %Help %Approval Paragraph 4: With the advent of projection in 1895-1896, motion pictures became the ultimate form of mass consumption. Previously, large audiences had viewed spectacles at the theater, where vaudeville, popular dramas, musical and minstrel shows, classical plays, lectures, and slide-and-lantern shows had been presented to several hundred spectators at a time. But the movies differed significantly from these other forms of entertainment, which depended on either live performance or (in the case of the slide-and-lantern shows) the active involvement of a master of ceremonies who assembled the final program. 6. According to paragraph 4, how did the early movies differ from previous spectacles that were presented to large audiences? %They were a more expensive form of entertainment. %They were viewed by larger audiences. %They were more educational. %They did not require live entertainers. Paragraph 5: Although early exhibitors regularly accompanied movies with live acts, the substance of the movies themselves is mass-produced, prerecorded material that can easily be reproduced by theaters with little or no active participation by the exhibitor. Even though early exhibitors shaped their film programs by mixing films and other entertainments together in whichever way they thought would be most attractive to audiences or by accompanying them with lectures* their creative control remained limited. What audiences came to see was the technological marvel of the movies; the lifelike reproduction of the commonplace motion of trains, of waves striking the shore, and of people walking in the street; and the magic made possible by trick photography and the manipulation of the camera. 7. According to paragraph 5, what role did early exhibitors play in the presentation of movies in theaters? %They decided how to combine various components of the film program. %They advised film-makers on appropriate movie content. %They often took part in the live-action performances. %They produced and prerecorded the material that was shown in the theaters. Paragraph 6: With the advent of projection, the viewer's relationship with the image was no longer private, as it had been with earlier peepshow devices such as the Kinetoscope and the Mutoscope, which was a similar machine that reproduced motion by means of successive images on individual photographic cards instead of on strips of celluloid. It suddenly became public-an experience that the viewer shared with dozens, scores, and even hundreds of others. At the same time, the image that the spectator looked at expanded from the minuscule peepshow dimensions of 1 or 2 inches (in height) to the life-size proportions of 6 or 9 feet. 8. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 6 as one of the ways the Mutoscope differed from the Kinetoscope? %Sound and motion were simultaneously produced in the Mutoscope. %More than one person could view the images at the same time with the Mutoscope. %The Mutoscope was a less sophisticated earlier prototype of the Kinetoscope. %A different type of material was used to produce the images used in the Mutocope. 9. The word it in the passage refers to %The advent of projection %The viewer's relationship with the image %A similar machine %Celluloid 10. According to paragraph 6, the images seen by viewers in the earlier peepshows, compared to the images projected on the screen, were relatively %Small in size %Inexpensive to create %Unfocused %Limited in subject matter 11. The word expanded in the passage is closest in meaning to %Was enlarged %Was improved %Was varied %Was rejected Paragraph 3: %Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission. %About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices. %These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience.% 12. Look at the four squares [%] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. When this widespread use of projection technology began to hurt his Kinetoscope business, Edison acquired a projector developed by Armat and introduced it as Edisons latest marvel, the Vitascope." Where would the sentence best fit? 13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The technology for modern cinema evolved at the end of the nineteenth century. % % % Answer Choices %Kinetoscope parlors for viewing films were modeled on phonograph parlors. %Thomas Edison's design of the Kinetoscope inspired the development of large screen projection. %Early cinema allowed individuals to use special machines to view films privately. %Slide-and-lantern shows had been presented to audiences of hundreds of spectators. %The development of projection technology made it possible to project images on a large screen. %Once film images could be projected, the cinema became form of mass consumption. ST{Hh 1. %3 This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph l. Choice 3 is the correct answer. The paragraph does mention that one viewer at a time could view the films (choice 1), that films could be viewed one after another (choice 2), and that films were short (choice 4). Prizefights are mentioned as one subject of these short films, but not necessarily the most popular one. 2. %2 This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. It asks why the author mentions "phonograph parlors" in paragraph 2. The correct answer is choice 2. The author is explaining why Edison designed his arcades like phonograph parlors; that design had been successful for him in the past. The paragraph does not mention the phonograph parlors to explain Edison's financial success, so choice 1 is incorrect. The paragraph does not directly discuss the situations described in choices 3 and 4, so those answers too are incorrect. 3. %3 This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted: He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him, instead of several. The correct answer is choice 3. That choice contains all of the essential ideas in the highlighted sentence. It is also the only choice that does not change the meaning of the sentence. Choice 1 says that Edison was more interested in developing a variety of machines, which is not true. Choice 2 says that the reason Edison refused to work on projection technology was that exhibitors would never replace the projectors. That also is not true; the highlighted sentence implies that he refused to do this because he wanted exhibitors to buy several Kinetoscope machines at a time instead of a single projector. Choice 4 says that Edison refused to develop projection technology unless exhibitors agreed to purchase more that one projector from him. The highlighted sentence actually says that Edison had already reasoned or concluded that exhibitors would not buy more than one, so choice 4 is a change in essential meaning. 4. %2 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is readily. It is highlighted in the passage. Readily means "easily," so choice 2 is the correct answer. The other choices do not fit in the context of the sentence. 5. %3 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is assistance; it is highlighted in the passage. An assistant is a person who helps a leader, so choice 3, "help," is the correct answer. 6. %4 This is a Factual Informal-ion question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 4. The correct answer is choice 4. Early movies were different from previous spectacles because they did not require live actors. The paragraph states (emphasis added): "But the movies differed significantly from these other forms of entertainment, which depended on either live performance or (in the case of the slide-and-lantern shows) the active involvement of a master of ceremonies who assembled the final program." So the fact that previous spectacles depended on live performances is explicitly stated as one of the ways (but not the only way) that those earlier entertainments differed from movies. The other answer choices are not mentioned in the paragraph. 7. %1 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 5. The correct answer is choice 1, "They decided how to combine various components of the film program," because that idea is stated explicitly in the paragraph: "Early exhibitors shaped their film programs by mixing films and other entertainments together." The other choices, while possibly true, are not explicitly mentioned in the paragraph as being among the exhibitors' roles. 8. %4 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 6. The correct answer is choice 4, "A different type of material was used to produce the images used in the Mutoscope." The paragraph says that these machines were very similar but that they differed in one particular way: ". . . the Mutoscope, which was a similar machine that reproduced motion by means of successive images on individual photographic cards instead of on strips of celluloid." 9. %2 This is a Reference question. The word being tested is it. That word is highlighted in the passage. Choice 2, "the viewer's relationship with the image," is the correct answer. This is a simple-pronoun referent item. The sentence says that "it" suddenly became "public," which implies that whatever "it" is, it was formerly private. The paragraph says that the "viewer's relationship to the image was no longer private," so that relationship is the "it" referred to here. 10. %1 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 6. The correct answer is choice 1. The paragraph says that the images expanded from an inch or two to life-size proportions, so "small in size" must be correct. The paragraph does not mention the other choices. 11. %1 This is a Vocabulary Question. The word being tested is expanded. It is highlighted in the passage. Choice 1, "was enlarged," is the correct answer. If something expanded, it grew or got bigger. "Enlarged" also means "grew or got bigger." 12. %4 This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 3 that represent the possible answer choices here. % Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission. %About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices. %These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience. % The inserted sentence fits best at square 4 because it represents the final result of the general use of projectors. After projectors became popular, Edison lost money, and although he had previously refused to develop projection technology, now be was forced to do so. To place the sentence anyplace else would interrupt the logical narrative sequence of the events described. None of the sentences in this paragraph can logically follow the inserted sentence, so squares 1, 2, and 3 are all incorrect. 13.%3, 5, 6 This is a Prose Summary question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices are 3, 5, and 6. Choices 1, 2, and 4 are therefore incorrect. Sыe egq_b 5uq_bvd>eb/gNgRv m\b__oS:N\q_Pbq_0R}^fvq_bO\U^ ُNlSO_5uq_b'YOSm9b:NS0(WǏ m\d>e5uq_vt^N̑ NNSǏd>eNhVvN*NN蕾nv\zSeg w5uq_00RN1894t^ Xble1ruSfv;mR5uq_>e f:glQ^NO ُy>e f:gN(uN;mR5uq_>e f[b5uq_1ZPNW0[̑bNS+T\ϑvrzd>ehV k!kNAQN*N~[‰ wN50 _wSv\wGr0,{N*N5uq_>e fSv>e f:g-N gNSd>ehV0NehV‰ wNehVbc0R NN*Nd>ehVO!k‰ w N Tvq_Gr1\P g TvLNbQ[ k:Wޏ~ۏL}YQnk[ 0 ُN5uq_d>eS/fNgqYuX:gd>eSv ُ_NfN1ruMRQt^v^8^bR0(WYuX:gd>eS-N ~[NǏrzv3{,TS]~U_6R}YvX NNS:ghVbc0RSNS,TS N TobPNvU_05uq_>e f[vRNKN{|e f:gkSNCSCQ v.UfatQ N/fN>e fv5uq_k10-15CQ 0N N?axvzbq_b/g V:NN:NYgxSv^N.Ubq_:g 5uq_>e f1\SOpNNSbq_:g N/fQS0 6q 5uq_>e fNgg\]v6evg'YS NN ^gf{f0W\\ϑ5uq_ Te>e f~Q~v*N~[ N/fk!k:NN*N~[d>eN!k5uq_ k!k6e9250R50R0(W1894t^5uq_>e f:glQ^vNt^KNT Ddq_^YLouisTAuguste Lumiere Thomas ArmatTCharles Francis Jenkins OrvilleT Woodville LathamNS1ruHQMRvRKbWilliam Dickson\bq_YS_fR[U0ُNegvbq_:g(WOY:WT:N'YO‰Od>e5uq_ YBgbgRV0ckS_vq_b0S_0WG Nvfv N Tp/f 5uq_eOVs:Who _N N2NThQ:Wvv;NcNvygSNOYGro:y 0 =\{egv5uq_>e f8^(W5uq_>e fe4O gs:Who FO/f5uq_,gvQ[/fq_bNHQ'YϑU_6R Negv ُNPge(Wl ghobho\SNv`Q(W5uq_b-N{~g0WQs0sSOُ7h egv5uq_>e f؏/f\5uq_TvQ[1ZPNvbo~T(WNw NN:N(uُ7hvelg'YP^v8T_‰O NN{tvR R؏/f^8^ gPv0‰ON(Wُ̑SN w0Rv5uq_b/gvۏeku;mtNv͑s YkpfvЏR wmjmbQwm\ NN(WW NLpI{NS1uDdq_yrbTv:gdcZPQegvyrHe0 4Obq_:gv0Reg 5uq_ N(W^\N*N+RNvm9T01\PKNMR m\eNvd>eY Y;mR5uq_d>e:gTeg5uq_d>e:g eg5uq_d>e:gd>ev/fN|RrzvVP N/fGr bUS*NDdq_aS NvVGr2NTwegb_bq_P0bq_b/gO_5uq_S_fR'YOSN ‰OYTASN*N0NAS*N0u/f N~v*NNqQ T‰ wN5uq_0Ndk Te ‰O@b w0RvVP'Y\_NNr\v1[b2[ m\ؚ^ibU\0RN[irrv6:\b9:\0 Aggression When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people. The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be involved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts. An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those individuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, such characteristics include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations. The sociobiology view has been attacked on numerous grounds. One is that people's capacity to outwit other species, not their aggressiveness, appears to be the dominant factor in human survival. Another is that there is too much variation among people to believe that they are dominated by, or at the mercy of, aggressive impulses. The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life. According to psychodynamic theory, the best ways to prevent harmful aggression may be to encourage less harmful aggression. In the steam-engine analogy, verbal aggression may vent some of the aggressive steam. So might cheering on one's favorite sports team. Psychoanalysts, therapists adopting a psychodynamic approach, refer to the venting of aggressive impulses as "catharsis." Catharsis is theorized to be a safety valve. But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leads to reductions in tension and a lowered likelihood of future aggression. Other studies, however, suggest that letting some steam escape actually encourages more aggression later on. The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively. One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not. Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving of tensions.  Paragraph 2: The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be involved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts. According to paragraph 2, what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus? %Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus. %Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus delays animals inborn reaction patterns. %Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus. %Animals who lack a hypothalamus display few aggressive tendencies. Paragraph 3: An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those individuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, such characteristics include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations. According to Darwin's theory of evolution, members of a species are forced to struggle for survival because %Not all individuals are skilled in finding food %Individuals try to defend their young against attackers %Many more individuals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction %Individuals with certain genes are more likely to reach adulthood Paragraph 5: The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life. 3. The word inevitable in the passage is closest in meaning to %Unavoidable %Regrettable %Controllable %Unsuitable 4. The word gratify in the passage is closest in meaning to %Identify %Modify %Satisfy %Simplify 5. The word they in the passage refers to %Future explosions %Pent-up aggressive impulses %Outlets %Indirect ways 6. According to paragraph 5, Freud believed that children experience conflict between a desire to vent aggression on their parents and %A frustration that their parents do not give them everything they want %A fear that their parents will punish them and stop loving them %A desire to take care of their parents %A desire to vent aggression on other family members 7. Freud describes people as steam engines in order to make the point that people %Deliberately build up their aggression to make themselves stronger %Usually release aggression in explosive ways %Must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up %Typically lose their aggression if they do not express it Paragraph 7: The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively. Paragraph 8: One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not. 8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. %People who believe that they are fighting a just war act aggressively while those who believe that they are fighting an unjust war do not. %People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified are more likely to act aggressively than those who believe differently. %People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary and justified may act aggressively during wartime. %People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily act aggressively during wartime. 9. According to the cognitive approach described in paragraphs 7 and 8, all of the following may influence the decision whether to act aggressively EXCEPT a person's %Moral values %Previous experiences with aggression %Instinct to avoid aggression %Beliefs about other people's intentions 10. The word distort in the passage is closest in meaning to %Mistrust %Misinterpret %Criticize %Resent Paragraph 5: The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. %Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. %The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." %By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. %Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life. 11. Look at the four squares [%] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to exist and demand expression. Where would the sentence best fit? 12. Directions: Complete the table below by matching five of the six answer choices with the approach to aggression that they exemplify. This question is worth 3 points. Approach to Understanding Aggression Associated Claims Biological approach % Psychodynamic approach % % Cognitive approach % % Answer choices %Aggressive impulses toward people are sometimes expressed in indirect ways. %Aggressiveness is often useful for individuals in the struggle for survival. %Aggressive behavior may involve a misunderstanding of other people's intentions. %The need to express aggressive impulses declines with age. %Acting aggressively is the result of a choice influenced by a person's values and beliefs. %Repressing aggressive impulses can result in aggressive behavior. ST{Hh: 1. % 3 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 2. The correct answer is choice 3. The question asks specifically for "evidence that indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus." Answer choices 1 and 2 are contradicted by the paragraph. Choice 2 is incorrect because, while the paragraph states that "electrical stimulation" triggers aggressive behavior in many animals, this is not "evidence" in itself, but merely support for the more general statement in choice 3 that increased hypothalamus activity, in general, is related to aggression. N NQ[:NOG~Qvʑ FO,gN:Ndkecknx y0V:NC y-Nvincreased activity:NSe*gcSQ[ VdkCy Ncknx0 B y-Nartificial V:NbN NNSeS_-Nv5u:RowmlSO[RirOeu'`cQN]v:RowmlSO[RirOeu'` ُ*N/fN*NNOPihQv~ Vdk^\B y-Nvartificial9e:Nelectrical RB y:Ncknx y0 2. %3 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "many more individuals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction." This answer choice is essentially a paraphrase of paragraph 3, sentence 4: "Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood." Choices 1 and 2 are not mentioned at all. Choice 4 may be true, but it is not stated in the passage as a fact; an inference is needed to support it. 3. %1 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is inevitable. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, unavoidable. If something is inevitable, that means that it will occur no matter what; in other words, it is unavoidable. 4. %3 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is gratify. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "satisfy." If a person's desires are gratified, those desires are fulfilled. Thus the person is satisfied. 5. %2 This is a Reference question. The word being tested is they. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "pent-up aggressive impulses." This is a simple pronoun-referent item. The word the?) here refers to something that "may be expressed toward strangers later in life." This is the "outlet" toward which the "aggressive impulses" mentioned may be directed. 6. %2 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 5. The correct answer is choice 2, "a fear that their parents will punish them and stop loving them." The question asks what causes the conflict between the desire to vent aggression and children's fears. The answer is found in paragraph 5 in the sentence that reads, "Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses." Answer choice 2 is the only choice that correctly identifies the cause of the conflict created by repressing aggression in children. 7. %3 This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. If asks you why the author mentions that Freud described people as "steam engines" in the passage. The phrase being tested is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up.'' Steam engines will explode if their steam builds up The same is true of people, as choice 3 indicates. The other choices are not necessarily true of both people and steam engines, so they are incorrect. 8. %2 This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted: For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively. The correct answer is choice 2. It contains all of the essential information in the highlighted sentence. The highlighted sentence compares people who believe particular acts of aggression are necessary and those who don't, in terms of their relative likelihood to act aggressively under certain conditions. This is precisely what choice 2 says: "People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified are more likely to act aggressively than those who believe differently." It compares the behavior of one type of person to that of another type of person. Nothing essential has been left out, and the meaning has not been changed. Choice 1 changes the meaning of the sentence; it says categorically that "those (people) who believe that they are fighting an unjust war do not (act aggressively)." The highlighted sentence merely says that such people are "less likely" to act aggressively, not that they never will; this changes the meaning. Choice 3 says, "People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary and justified may act aggressively during wartime." This is incorrect because it leaves out critical information: it does not mention people who do believe aggression is necessary. This choice does not make the same comparison as the highlighted sentence. Choice 4, "People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily act aggressively during wartime," also changes the meaning of the sentence by leaving out essential information. In this choice, no mention is made of people who do not believe aggression is necessary. This choice does not make the same comparison as the highlighted sentence. 9. %3 This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraphs 7 and 8. Choice 3 is the correct answer. Choice 1, "moral values," is explicitly mentioned as one of the influences on aggressive behavior; so it is incorrect. Choices 2 (previous experiences) and 4 sentence in paragraph8 says, People decide whether they will act aggressively of not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other peoples motives. Choice 3, the instinct to avoid aggression, is not mentioned, so it is the correct answer here. 10. %2 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is distort . It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "misinterpret." To distort other people's motives is to twist them, or view them incorrectly and thereby not understand them properly. Something that is not understood properly is misinterpreted. 11. %2 This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 5 that represent the possible answer choices here. The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. %Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. %The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as "steam engines." % By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. % Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life. The sentence provided, "According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to exist and demand expression," is best inserted at square 2. Square 2 is correct because the sentence being inserted is a connective sentence, connecting the idea of childhood repression in the preceding sentence to the "Freudian perspective" in the sentence that follows. The use of the word however in this sentence indicates that an idea already introduced (the repression of children's aggressive impulses) is being modified. Here, the inserted sentence tells us that Freud thought that even though these impulses are repressed, they continue to exist. This serves as a connection to the next sentence and the "Freudian perspective." Inserting the sentence at square 1 would place the modification ("however, impulses . . . continue to exist") before the idea that it modifies (repression of impulses). This makes no logical sense. Inserting the sentence at square 3 would move the modifying sentence away from its logical position immediately following the idea that it modifies (repression of impulses). Placing the insert sentence at square 4 moves the sentence farther from its logical antecedent and has no connection to the sentence that follows it. 12.%2 %1, 6 %3, 5 Sыe Oeu'`L:N Rir;eQ_]e OhsQ^8^f>fvOeu'`L:N0_tf[[NǑ(uNpeyelegRgN{|vOeu'`L:N0 uirf[el0Oeu'`L:NyOuirf[/fuirf[elvN*NR/e t:NOeu'`[NN{| /f)Yuv^N_v0>yOuirf[:N SbOeu'`L:N(WQvY>yOL:N/f1uW OQ[v09hnc\evۏS N:N *NSOX[(Wvpeϑ܏܏ǏNSN~b0Rߘirv^N;m0Rbt^v*NSOpeϑ *NSOKN_YۏLuX[zN Nb gzNORv*NSOf[fX[;m v^NO\[N g)RNuX[zNvWVW O~ NNN0'YRiry@bwQ gvzNORyr(KNN1\/f}Ye'`0b gOeu'`yr(v*NSOf[fX[;mTA~k Vdk NOeu'`L:NvsQvTyWVW O~ NNNvS'`f'Y0 t(WOYebm0R(u0vQN N{|b gvQNiry NwQYvR ُyv^^Oeu'`(vRMb/fN{|uX[ Negv;NSV0vQN N{| NX[(W*YYvSpe Vdk bNelvON{|OOeu'`QR;N[b/eM0 |^yRRf[el0t[NOnc|^yRRf[el:N Q(Wwv/ft㉺N{|SbOeu'`L:N(WQv@b gL:NvsQ.@b(W0kY _m O_:N e8^u;m-Nv+c%a NSMQ0W[N{|NuOeu'`QR0i[P[Ne8^`[SbNN6rk(WQvvQNNSlOeu'`QRv`a V:NsSO/fghThQv6rk_NelZP0RzsSni[P[v@b gBl06q i[NSOV:N[`S0R6rkvYZ b_1YS6rkv1r S6RNQ_'YRvOeu'`QR0NgyaIN N _m O_v‰p/f\N{|Ɖ:N }l:g ǏQ萋S6R N/fʑ>e }l ۏ :NNTvrSW NO{0yZwegvvOeu'`QRʑ>eQeg0i[P[NOc[NNv6rkSl kYkOW[wQ b(WNTvu;m-N[LuNSl0 9hnc|^yRRf[tSw MQ g[Oeuvg}Yel/fc!PqS[\vOeue_0(u}l:gSb*Nke'T '`vOeuSNʑ>eN&^ gOeu'`(v}l0kY `OSN:N]gU"kvSOVPTURZ0|^yRgf[[/f)R(u|^yRRf[elRgvtu^ NN\Oeu'`QRvSl wb/f |^ySl 0tf|^ySl/fNy[hQve_0FOxvzSs|^ySlv g(u'`Te(u'`_mqN0 gvxvzhf|^ySlSN'} _`~v^N gRNMNONTOeu'`L:NNuvS'`0FOvQNxvzShfʑ>eRvOeu'`QR}lN[ NO[NTfYvOeu'`L:NvNu0 wel0w_tf[[N:NN{|vL:NSN NV }q_TNyO0WMO_N_Y NM0TKb]\OJW̑__NvcwNNv^PKNv[R]\OsQ| N T ]S\]N6B\N{tB\f>f0W:SR_0_\ g]NYPI{~cGS0R{tB\v\MO uW,gl gNY[s:N] Sevh`~%]vua0N_GOSv]N_N_Ya0RNNv>yO0WMO(W NM0 (Wُyev~Nmy^-N ge]NNO~~wegqQ TSObNNvCg)RT O~vu;me_0kY(g S0pS7R]NTI{b/g]NbzNTv v^N (W1834t^ T*NrzvTv~~bzNV[L]Tv0(W1837t^'YP`LaMRKNvASt^-N ]NЏRS_Nۏek NǏT egv~Nm'Y'agg~[N]NRϑvt0ke _\ gN?aab]bSN]NЏR0:N]NЏRHQ vb/g] SN v^l ga0RNNNJSb/g]NT^b/gRRKN g>fW[RvT|0v0R19N~50t^N ǏASt^vbNg~O_'YYpeLNv]\Oe)w10\e lb_NbN]Nb]vCg)R FOُNCg)Rvq_Tv^l gzsS>fs0 V:N[]NSO|TNN>yO0WMO'N1Yv Nn ]NN_YTTweg FONNQSSYvV }RˆleTyevLe[0'`+R]_0[YeONvQz0LMO]+R0[ N T?eZQv_ڋT]\OV{euvRgkI{0[N]NNeg ]ST]NS NNh@w:gG tSe;Rc@wNNꁫv'N1Y v^b:NNyc6RNNu;mvKbk0@wV>yOuNS_fRNNST]_S f'Yĉ!jvgz"[_YQs0v^N1uNetQ^:WS~\peNR "[ ]NSO| N_ NǏ\RRRrRbf\v0b/g+TϑfNOv]\OegMNO]NNv]D0 Swimming Machines Tunas, mackerels, and billfishes (marlins, sailfishes, and swordfish) swim continuously. Feeding, courtship, reproduction, and even "rest" are carried out while in constant motion. As a result, practically every aspect of the body form and function of these swimming "machines" is adapted to enhance their ability to swim. Many of the adaptations of these fishes serve to reduce water resistance (drag). Interestingly enough, several of these hydrodynamic adaptations resemble features designed to improve the aerodynamics of high-speed aircraft. Though human engineers are new to the game, tunas and their relatives evolved their "high-tech" designs long ago. Tunas, mackerels, and billfishes have made streamlining into an art form. Their bodies are sleek and compact. The body shapes of tunas, in fact, are nearly ideal from an engineering point of view. Most species lack scales over most of the body, making it smooth and slippery. The eyes lie flush with the body and do not protrude at all. They are also covered with a slick, transparent lid that reduces drag. The fins are stiff, smooth, and narrow, qualities that also help cut drag. When not in use, the fins are tucked into special grooves or depressions so that they lie flush with the body and do not break up its smooth contours. Airplanes retract their landing gear while in flight for the same reason. Tunas, mackerels, and billfishes have even more sophisticated adaptations than these to improve their hydrodynamics. The long bill of marlins, sailfishes, and swordfish probably helps them slip through the water. Many supersonic aircraft have a similar needle at the nose. Most tunas and billfishes have a series of keels and finlets near the tail. Although most of their scales have been lost, tunas and mackerels retain a patch of coarse scales near the head called the corselet. The keels, finlets, and corselet help direct the flow of water over the body surface in such as way as to reduce resistance (see the figure). Again, supersonic jets have similar features. Because they are always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. Accordingly, they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. In fact, tunas must swim to breathe. They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant. One potential problem is that opening the mouth to breathe detracts from the streamlining of these fishes and tends to slow them down. Some species of tuna have specialized grooves in their tongue. It is thought that these grooves help to channel water through the mouth and out the gill slits, thereby reducing water resistance. There are adaptations that increase the amount of forward thrust as well as those that reduce drag. Again, these fishes are the envy of engineers. Their high, narrow tails with swept-back tips are almost perfectly adapted to provide propulsion with the least possible effort. Perhaps most important of all to these and other fast swimmers is their ability to sense and make use of swirls and eddies (circular currents) in the water. They can glide past eddies that would slow them down and then gain extra thrust by "pushing off" the eddies. Scientists and engineers are beginning to study this ability of fishes in the hope of designing more efficient propulsion systems for ships. The muscles of these fishes and the mechanism that maintains a warm body temperature are also highly efficient. A bluefin tuna in water of 7C (45F) can maintain a core temperature of over 25C (77"F). This warm body temperature may help not only the muscles to work better, but also the brain and the eyes. The billfishes have gone one step further. They have evolved special "heaters" of modified muscle tissue that warm the eyes and brain, maintaining peak performance of these critical organs.  Paragraph 1: Tunas, mackerels, and billfishes (marlins, sailfishes, and swordfish) swim continuously. Feeding, courtship, reproduction, and even "rest" are carried out while in constant motion. As a result, practically every aspect of the body form and function of these swimming "machines" is adapted to enhance their ability to swim. 1. The word enhance in the passage is closest in meaning to %Use %Improve %Counteract %Balance Paragraph 3: Tunas, mackerels, and billfishes have made streamlining into an art form. Their bodies are sleek and compact. The body shapes of tunas, in fact, are nearly ideal from an engineering point of view. Most species lack scales over most of the body, making it smooth and slippery. The eyes lie flush with the body and do not protrude at all. They are also covered with a slick, transparent lid that reduces drag. The fins are stiff, smooth, and narrow, qualities that also help cut drag. When not in use, the fins are tucked into special grooves or depressions so that they lie flush with the body and do not break up its smooth contours. Airplanes retract their landing gear while in flight for the same reason. 2. The word they in the passage refers to %Qualities %Fins %Grooves %Depressions 3. Why does the author mention that Airplanes retract their landing gear while in flight? %To show that air resistance and water resistance work differently from each other %To argue that some fishes are better designed than airplanes are %To provide evidence that airplane engine have studied the design of fish bodies %To demonstrate a similarity in design between certain fishes and airplanes Paragraph 4: Tunas, mackerels, and billfishes have even more sophisticated adaptations than these to improve their hydrodynamics. The long bill of marlins, sailfishes, and swordfish probably helps them slip through the water. Many supersonic aircraft have a similar needle at the nose. 4. The word sophisticated in the passage is closest in meaning to %Complex %Amazing %Creative %Practical 5. According to paragraph4, the long bills of marlins, sailfish, and swordfish probably help these fishes by %Increasing their ability to defend themselves %Allowing them to change direction easily %Increasing their ability to detect odors %Reducing water resistance as they swim Paragraph 6: Because they are always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. Accordingly, they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. In fact, tunas must swim to breathe. They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant. 6. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion? %They lack a swim bladder. %They need to suck in more water than other fishes do. %They have large muscles for breathing. %They cannot open their mouths unless they are in motion. Paragraph 7: One potential problem is that opening the mouth to breathe detracts from the streamlining of these fishes and tends to slow them down. Some species of tuna have specialized grooves in their tongue. It is thought that these grooves help to channel water through the mouth and out the gill slits, thereby reducing water resistance. 7. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information, %These fishes often have a problem opening their mouths while swimming. %The streamlining of these fishes prevents them from slowing down. %The streamlining of these fishes tends to slow down their breathing. %Opening the mouth to breathe can reduce the speed of these fishes. 8. The word channel in the passage is closest in meaning to %Reduce %Remove %Direct %Provide Paragraph 8: There are adaptations that increase the amount of forward thrust as well as those that reduce drag. Again, these fishes are the envy of engineers. Their high, narrow tails with swept-back tips are almost perfectly adapted to provide propulsion with the least possible effort. Perhaps most important of all to these and other fast swimmers is their ability to sense and make use of swirls and eddies (circular currents) in the water. They can glide past eddies that would slow them down and then gain extra thrust by "pushing off" the eddies. Scientists and engineers are beginning to study this ability of fishes in the hope of designing more efficient propulsion systems for ships. 9. According to the passage, one of the adaptations of fast-swimming fishes that might be used to improve the performance of ships is these fishes' ability to %Swim directly through eddies %Make efficient use of water currents %Cover great distances without stopping %Gain speed by forcing water past their gills Paragraph 9: The muscles of these fishes and the mechanism that maintains a warm body temperature are also highly efficient. A bluefin tuna in water of 7C (45F) can maintain a core temperature of over 25C (77F). This warm body temperature may help not only the muscles to work better, but also the brain and the eyes. The billfishes have gone one step further. They have evolved special "heaters" of modified muscle tissue that warm the eyes and brain, maintaining peak performance of these critical organs. 10. According to paragraph 9, which of the following is true of bluefin tunas? %Their eyes and brain are more efficient than those of any other fish. %Their body temperature can change greatly depending on the water temperature. %They can swim in waters that are much colder than their own bodies. %They have special muscle tissue that warms their eyes and brain. Paragraph 6: %Because they are always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. %Accordingly, they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. %In fact, tunas must swim to breathe. %They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant. 11. Look at the four squares [%l that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Consequently, tunas do not need to suck in water. Where would the sentence best fit? 12. Directions: Complete the table below by indicating which features of fishes are associated in the passage with reducing water resistance and which are associated with increasing thrust. This question is worth 3 points. REDUCING WATER RESISTANCEINCREASING THRUST% % %% % Features of Fishes %The absence of scales from most of the body %The ability to take advantage of eddies %The ability to feed and reproduce while swimming %Eyes that do not protrude %Fins that are stiff, narrow, and smooth %The habit of swimming with the mouth open %A high, narrow tail with swept-back tips ST{Hh 1. % 2 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is enhance. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "improve." To enhance something means to "make it better." If something has been "improved," it has been made better. 2. %2 This is a Reference question. The word being tested is they. It is highlighted in the passage. Choice 2, "fins," is the correct answer. This is a simple pronoun-referent item. The word they refers to something that lies flush with the body when not in use. This is true only of "fins." 3. % 4 This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. It asks why the author mentions that "Airplanes retract their landing gear while in flight." The phrase being tested is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 4, "To demonstrate a similarity in design between certain fishes and airplanes." The paragraph in which the highlighted phrase appears describes how certain fish use their fins. The highlighted phrase is used to provide a more familiar example (airplanes) of the principle involved to help the reader visualize how fins work. The paragraph does not discuss airplanes in any other context, so choices 2 and 3 are incorrect. Air and water resistance are not mentioned in this paragraph, so choice 1 is incorrect. 4. % 1 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is sophisticated. It is high lighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, "complex." If something is sophisticated, it is "not simple," so it must be "complex." 5. % 4 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 4. The correct answer is choice 4, "reducing water resistance as they swim." The overall theme of the passage is how certain fish swim so efficiently. Paragraphs 1 and 2 make the general statement that "practically every aspect of the body form and function of these swimming 'machines' is adapted to enhance their ability to swim. Many of the adaptations of these fishes serve to reduce water resistance (drag)." Paragraph 4 explicitly states (emphasis added) that "Tunas, mackerels, and billfishes have even more sophisticated adaptations than these to improve their hydrodynamics. The long bill of marlins, sailfishes, and swordfish probably helps them slip through the water." This is a specific example of one adaptation that these fish have made to increase their swimming efficiency. None of the other choices is mentioned in the paragraph. 6. % 1 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, "They lack a swim bladder." Paragraph 6 explicitly states ". . . tunas must swim to breathe. They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most hale largely or completely lost the swim bladder . . ." The other choices are not supported by the passage. 7. % 4 This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted: One potential problem is that opening the mouth to breathe detracts from the streamlining of these fishes and tends to slow them down. The correct answer is choice 4. That choice contains all of the essential ideas in the highlighted sentence. It is also the only choice that does not change the meaning of the sentence. It omits the fact that this is "a problem and also "that it detracts from streamlining" because that information is not essential to the meaning. Choice 1 says that these fish have trouble opening their mouths while swimming, which is not true. Choice 2, that streamlining prevents fish from slowing down, may be true, but it is not mentioned in this sentence. The fish are slowed down when they open their mouths, which reduces streamlining. Choice 3, that streamlining slows the fishes' breathing, is also not mentioned. 8. % 3 This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is channel. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "direct." Channel here is used as a verb, meaning to "move" or "push." 9. % 2 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "make efficient use of water currents." Paragraph 8 explicitly states: "Perhaps most important of all to these and other fast swimmers is their ability to sense and make use of swirls and eddies (circular currents) in the water. They can glide past eddies that would slow them down and then gain extra thrust by "pushing off" the eddies. Scientists and engineers are beginning to study this ability of fishes in the hope of designing more efficient propulsion systems for ships." The other choices are not mentioned in connection with the performance of ships. 10. % 3 This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 9. The correct answer is choice 3, "They can swim in waters that are much colder than their own bodies." That paragraph says, "A bluefin tuna in water of 7C (45F) can maintain a core temperature of over 25C (77"F)." So it is clear that choice C is correct. Choice 1 is not stated in the paragraph. Choice 2 is contradicted by the paragraph. Choice 4 is true of billfish, not bluefin tuna. 11. %2 This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 6 that represent the possible answer choices here. The last sentence of paragraph 5 is also reproduced below. Again, supersonic jets have similar features. %Because they are always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. % Accordingly, they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. In fact, tunas must swim to breathe.%They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant. The sentence provided, "Consequently, tunas do not need to suck in water," is best inserted at square 2. The sentence provides an explanation for the muscle loss described in the sentence that follows square 2 and is a result of the fact described in the preceding sentence, which says that because the fish are always swimming, they only have to open their mouths to suck in water. Thus if the provided sentence is inserted at square 2, it provides a logical bridge between cause and effect. The sentence makes no logical sense anywhere else. 12.%Reducing Water Resistance: 1, 4, 5 %Increasing Thrust: 2, 7 This is a Fill in a Table question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices for the "Reducing water resistance" column are 1, 4, and 5. Choices 2 and 7 belong in the "Increasing thrust" column. Choices 3 and 6 should not be used in either column. Sыe 8nl:ghV ёg| | T4V|bb/fg|0e|T{| v8nRN N\Pbk0[Nvۏߘ BlvP A~k u Oo` (W NevЏR-NۏL0N[ N ُN8nl :ghV SO~gvk*NMOSvQR g)RN[Nf}Y0W8nL0 :NNQ\(W4l-NMRLv;R ُ{|| NNuN_Y^'`SS0^8^ gv/f N{|:NNMNOzzl;RR_ؚޘ:gЏL^@bۏLvTُN|v^'`SS^8^vfQeg0SOhb؏v@wNB\IQnfvYc |͜RZWlx0s^3z rz ُNyr_ gRNMNOMRL-Nv;R0S_|?QN NO(u|͜e O\[NbV0RyrkvlibQwv0We NSOOc TNs^b N~c[Ns^nvYb_0ޘ:g6eVw=ňn Tُ/f T7hvSt0 T Nyr_vk ёg|0|T4V|Nb gfR|fvKbkegXR[N(W4l-Nv^'` kYNNv'Y4V0_Yޘ:gv4Y1\ g{|\]DяO gN2N T\͜0}6q[N N'YR0We/feޜv FO(W4YDя؏OYu@wNWW|vޜGr SZP|v 2u0 0\͜T2u gRN4lvcAm~|SOhb MNO;RDV 0 T7h ޘ:gvU4Y_N g{|Pev^N rzv>\^8^ g)RN[N(ugwRve_MRL0[ُN|?QNSvQNv|{|8nleP\Neg Oc(W4l̑_MRL g͑vS1\/f[)omTAmawS)R(uvR0)omOMNO[Nv^ FO[N(WAm~)ome NNSN{ f>N0WnǏ NOǏ cR )om_YvRR0yf[[T] z^Nck(Wxvz|vُyR NgQfؚHevn9cۏ|~0 ُN|{|v~~TO)n:g6R_N^8^ؚHe0NS݄͜ёg|(W7C (45F)v)n^ NSNOc25C (77F)N NvSO)n0)nfvSO)nSNO_0'YTNNu [lQl#0 pgKQ (uُju݋͑e[INNQv҉r SvQNlOvsQ|0 (WpgKQ v,{NNNLg NvS[NnTTwegb_bNPTNb>yOƉ\Os^lQl0y iV;N0]N TN\d*jZv5ec~veN0NN[y NL[TbDN/f hy5e NN(W])RvvqO Nd~@wL|~ v^NNRb:gTŏZS NINKN"vL:N%OWVlS_0l;NZQNe`N^:W~Nm-N_}YY S N`zrrrUSNW0W@b gCgvqQTSO6R0NN`^:W~Nm&^egv"[ N`zN N`9eS>yO N` YBgvNf N'YW^v;N[T@w^:W~Nm egvrz'`v'N1Y0 SNeb yO9eilHhTeRYe0 $N*N?eZQ(W>yO~g0NXTgb NwQ ggy z^vvyOg'YSOsSQlT]NS_-N_'YR/ec0NUON*NZQ>mS}YwzNb[N NSb_ >N06q kN(WNLu8f-NQ.UhTs|vy0WvN04ngVSQYO|vQlT ^g9eSsrv]NvU}Y0l;NZQR8T_NyN^:WYb N`N`^:WvQl0]N|~Yv]NT`Sb4xWe_Se^:WvetQ\ON[v"k_0f6qh:yS}YT^ T0g\e\e/fۏSvRYN N(W19N~fcQ ` gLea0W2QYrhsv/f$a`v`~ N{|[bh`vwwQ gN[vuX[e O^y~QRvir( 0b萌v6e)S fv^q_TQ_`~r`0WKQfSs @bv\gtQ_{ 1\/fc\~Txw gY|T\wP[ NNKNvzz/fg8^vPX[0W N4lvzz01uُN|~bv4l^^8^nfM 8^MON w NvWX Ne (WMn%`vlAmf~AmǏv0We~b0R[Nv*0kY QleNvSv]'YQB\nS 'Yϑ4lN?QAmQ04l̑;`O:d&^NwP[0>xwTlw ُ1\/f@bvQlgvQ4lly ُN|O@w4lAmvQ lm0 sN_N gQ4lly =\{ĉ!jv[\0Q/f g:d&^llvlAmbnAmNq\7Amv[s^fWv0Wbe xw1\@w4lAm^vQbanlm4lAm8^HTGbb_ibce [N@b:d&^vxw_NOlm:NIQnvGbb_eb0S_lAmGleQVnlTwm mveP_NO glm ُNlmgR(WVn^bwm^ FO\egwms^b NMbF0W]we [N1\OR^NQF 8^SQCSs|0 NO0W:SW NvNUOMOnS1\/ff~vl^ T~WXv Sbs(Wv7hP[0YgNl^Tl2ms(WMON0W N4lMOKN N N[O g'Yϑv0W N4lxm(W[Nvl>xTlwKN0 N Nv/f~gcevlyir NZWVvlyir _Nb gNpeNvk~T[eg[~4l0V:NgR|v8^v^*g[hQ|VvSf[ir(^Xn NR|_S(WVSebVSTneQv0W N4ln~gُNx\g~S_Tb_b[vcelN7hYT[0 Vdk N{lyir/fu~g؏/fZWV NN-NN[ gzz0'YR~vfSO\w^8^ZWlx FO_N gOY g8^v1\/fsfk\ [/fNyVSvkpq\q\ ~8^EQnN_\ll N S_ASRYT[0 \wvYT['`1\/fcvQ-NzzvkO0FOlav/f YT['`Nn'`/f N Tv0n'`aϑv/f4lnir(vf z^ [SQNNUS*NzzNSޏczzˆv'Y\0 S_EQn4lRvlmirb\w7h,g>en(WTvr^qsX-Ne 'YRv4lROAmr^ FON gR4lO~~D@w(WZW[vhb N0 N/fV:Nhb _R ُN4lR_NOz;RS NYu N[hQr^qv7h,g0Vdk Ջ7h,gv+T4lϑeSbSNAmr^v4l _NSb NAmr^v4l0 ُ$Ny4lvv[+TϑV\wblyiry{| N T 9eS sSO[N gv TkOvzz ؏SQNzzv'Y\0Ygzz_'Y vQ-Nv4lOb_b4ln *Y͑NKQ g8T_[vhb _R 1\OAmpFOYgzzY\ 4lOPN7h *Y{elKQ ghb _R N 3z3z0WD@w(Wzzhb N0 The Origins of Theater In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a person becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the groups oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns. Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being. Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative. Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrators pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person. A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that are primarily pantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. Admiration for the performers skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realized theatrical performances. In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitativeas taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities. But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness.  Paragraph 1:0In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. 1. The word  championed in the passage is closest in meaning to %Changed %Debated %Created %Supported 2. The word  attributes in the passage is closest in meaning to %Ascribes %Leaves %Limits %Contrasts 3. According to paragraph 1, theories of the origins of theater %Are mainly hypothetical %Are well supported by factual evidence %Have rarely been agreed upon by anthropologists %Were expressed in the early stages of theater s development 4. According to paragraph 1, why did some societies develop and repeat ceremonial actions? %To establish a positive connection between the members of the society %To help society members better understand the forces controlling their food supply %To distinguish their beliefs from those of other societies %To increase the society s prosperity Paragraph 2:Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a people become more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the groups oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns. 5. The word this in the passage refers to %The acting out of rites %The divorce of ritual performers from the rest of society %The separation of myths from rites %The celebration of supernatural forces 6. The word  autonomous in the passage is closest in meaning to %Artistic %Important %Independent %Established 7. According to paragraph 2, what may cause societies to abandon certain rites? %Emphasizing theater as entertainment %Developing a new understanding of why events occur. %Finding a more sophisticated way of representing mythical characters %Moving from a primarily oral tradition to a more written tradition Paragraph 5: In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitativeas taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities. 8. All of following are mentioned in paragraph 5 as possible reasons that led societies to develop theater EXCEPT: %Theater allows people to face that they are afraid of. %Theater gives an opportunity to imagine a better reality. %Theater is a way to enjoy imitating other people. %Theater provides people the opportunity to better understand the human mind. 9. Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 5? %The author presents two theories for a historical phenomenon. %The author argues against theories expressed earlier in the passage. %The author argues for replacing older theories with a new one. %The author points out problems with two popular theories. Paragraph 6: But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 10The word  penchant in the passage is closest in meaning to %Compromise %Inclination %Tradition %Respect 11Why does the author mention  comedy ? %To give an example of early types of theater %To explain how theater helps a society respond to threats to its welfare %To help explain why detachment is needed for the development of theater %To show how theatrical performers become detached from other members of society. 12Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. %A society s rites were more likely to be retained in the oral tradition if its myths were admired for artistic qualities. %The artistic quality of a myth was sometimes an essential reason for a society to abandon it from the oral tradition. %Some early societies stopped using myths in their religious practices when rites ceased to be seen as useful for social well-being. %Myths sometimes survived in a society s tradition because of their artistic qualities even after they were no longer deemed religiously beneficial. Paragraph 3:%Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being.% Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative. %Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures.% Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person. 13Look at the four squares [%] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. To enhance their listener s enjoyment, storytellers continually make their stories more engaging and memorable. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. 14Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Anthropologists have developed many theories to help understand why and how theater originated. % % % Answer choices %The presence of theater in almost all societies is thought to have occurred because early story tellers traveled to different groups to tell their stories. %Many theorists believe that theater arises when societies act out myths to preserve social well-being. %The more sophisticated societies became, the better they could influence desirable occurrences through ritualized theater. %Some theories of theater development focus on how theater was used by group leaders to group leaders govern other members of society. %Theater may have come from pleasure humans receive from storytelling and moving rhythmically. %The human capacities for imitation and fantasy are considered possible reasons why societies develop theater. ST{Hh 1. %4 2. %1 3. %1 4. %4 5. %3 6. %3 7. %2 8. %4 9. %1 10. %2 11. %3 12. %4 13. %4 14. %2, 5, 6 Sыe bgRvwn 1uNQNNl gwQSOPgeSOxvz c[bgRvwnSQcKm019N~+g20N~R:NN{|f[[N@bbbvNyt_0RNNNv^l Tُy‰p:NbgRwnN^y݋T[YeN_ ُNN{|f[[NcǏ zS{ibY N(W>yOSU\eg NNvO gRϑSNq_TudcNNvߘirO^Tx^yu;m0(W[6qSVv^ NASRN㉄v`Q N NNb ^gb N` ^gSuvN`R_TN6qvbT{^vRϑ v^NՋV[~bTy_b_ُNRϑvS1r0S_NNaƋ0R]vgNL:NTgv~gKNX[(Wf>fvT|NT NNO_Y͑ Yv^N[UُNL:N g~b_bV[vxQyO NupvsQl0 =\{bgRwnN[YeN_vl/fvMRg'YOSv FOeYUOُ N/fbgRwnv/UNtSNycKm:NbgRnNfN0(Wُ*Nt-N NEeNNuT|TF,TEeNƉ:N/fN{|W,gvPN0Vdk NǏ]vKbRT!jNb[N*NNNvV_N!kSbs0by_b/fvQ[RRON hsvmo=\ ُye_g~oSb:N1u N TvNego~ N Tv҉r0 SYNyNKNvsQvt:N bgR;N/fNeXv0 gOYvH0SOd b!jNRirXvǏ znoS eg0NN[hovob0[RTOŖv#kOƉ:N/fho\NNvho|_V{R:NbgRvRR0 :NNۏNekc[bgRvwn NNf[>m_YNN{|SU\bgRvR:g N^zt0:NNHNbgROSU\ :NNHN(WbgR[hQ1y[YeN_NT؏ gُHN'YvNyOĉ-Nvy~SSvL:NƉ\OgvQR,vN` N/f[lQOSOy)Rv%N͑Z0SN*N[bgRrzvagN/f[aɉvQs0OY NNeg>yOvNN:N gvN_[NNvx^yu;meg NQ/f_T v^NSmNNN_0}6qYdk NN؏/fOYuNNS4Y OEeNv O~v^Np1rNُNN_̑SU\wegv^y݋ QN[Nvz/g'` N/f[YeSV0 Timberline Vegetation on Mountains The transition from forest to treeless tundra on a mountain slope is often a dramatic one. Within a vertical distance of just a few tens of meters, trees disappear as a life-form and are replaced by low shrubs, herbs, and grasses. This rapid zone of transition is called the upper timberline or tree line. In many semiarid areas there is also a lower timberline where the forest passes into steppe or desert at its lower edge, usually because of a lack of moisture. The upper timberline, like the snow line, is highest in the tropics and lowest in the Polar Regions. It ranges from sea level in the Polar Regions to 4,500 meters in the dry subtropics and 3,500-4,500 meters in the moist tropics. Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that these have some advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. There are some areas, however, where broadleaf deciduous trees form the timberline. Species of birch, for example, may occur at the timberline in parts of the Himalayas. At the upper timberline the trees begin to become twisted and deformed. This is particularly true for trees in the middle and upper latitudes, which tend to attain greater heights on ridges, whereas in the tropics the trees reach their greater heights in the valleys. This is because middle- and upper- latitude timberlines are strongly influenced by the duration and depth of the snow cover. As the snow is deeper and lasts longer in the valleys, trees tend to attain greater heights on the ridges, even though they are more exposed to high-velocity winds and poor, thin soils there. In the tropics, the valleys appear to be more favorable because they are less prone to dry out, they have less frost, and they have deeper soils. There is still no universally agreed-on explanation for why there should be such a dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline. Various environmental factors may play a role. Too much snow, for example, can smother trees, and avalanches and snow creep can damage or destroy them. Late-lying snow reduces the effective growing season to the point where seedlings cannot establish themselves. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months. Above the tree line there is a zone that is generally called alpine tundra. Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of a fairly complete cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up the number and diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground with occasional mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants. Some plants can even survive in favorable microhabitats above the snow line. The highest plants in the world occur at around 6,100 meters on Makalu in the Himalayas. At this great height, rocks, warmed by the sun, melt small snowdrifts. The most striking characteristic of the plants of the alpine zone is their low growth form. This enables them to avoid the worst rigors of high winds and permits them to make use of the higher temperatures immediately adjacent to the ground surface. In an area where low temperatures are limiting to life, the importance of the additional heat near the surface is crucial. The low growth form can also permit the plants to take advantage of the insulation provided by a winter snow cover. In the equatorial mountains the low growth form is less prevalent.  Paragraph 1The transition from forest to treeless tundra on a mountain slope is often a dramatic one. Within a vertical distance of just a few tens of meters, trees disappear as a life-form and are replaced by low shrubs, herbs, and grasses. This rapid zone of transition is called the upper timberline or tree line. In many semiarid areas there is also a lower timberline where the forest passes into steppe or desert at its lower edge, usually because of a lack of moisture. 1. The word dramatic in the passage is closest in meaning to %Gradual %Complex %Visible %Striking 2. Where is the lower timberline mentioned in paragraph 1 likely to be found? %In an area that has little water %In an area that has little sunlight %Above a transition area %On a mountain that has on upper timberline. 3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about both the upper and lower timberlines? %Both are treeless zones %Both mark forest boundaries. %Both are surrounded by desert areas. %Both suffer from a lack of moisture. Paragraph 2The upper timberline, like the snow line, is highest in the tropics and lowest in the Polar Regions. It ranges from sea level in the Polar Regions to 4,500 meters in the dry subtropics and 3,500-4,500 meters in the moist tropics. Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that these have some advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. There are some areas, however, where broadleaf deciduous trees form the timberline. Species of birch, for example, may occur at the timberline in parts of the Himalayas. 4. Paragraph 2 supports which of the following statements about deciduous trees? %They cannot grow in cold climates. %They do not exist at the upper timberline. %They are less likely than evergreens to survive at the upper timberline. %They do not require as much moisture as evergreens do. Paragraph 3At the upper timberline the trees begin to become twisted and deformed. This is particularly true for trees in the middle and upper latitudes, which tend to attain greater heights on ridges, whereas in the tropics the trees reach their greater heights in the valleys. This is because middle- and upper- latitude timberlines are strongly influenced by the duration and depth of the snow cover. As the snow is deeper and lasts longer in the valleys, trees tend to attain greater heights on the ridges, even though they are more exposed to high-velocity winds and poor, thin soils there. In the tropics, the valleys appear to be more favorable because they are less prone to dry out, they have less frost, and they have deeper soils. 5. The word attain in the passage is closest in meaning to %require %resist %achieve %endure 6. The word they in the passage refers to %valleys %trees %heights %ridges 7. The word prone in the passage is closest in meaning to %adapted %likely %difficult %resistant 8. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of trees in the middle and upper latitudes? %Tree growth is negatively affected by the snow cover in valleys. %Tree growth is greater in valleys than on ridges. %Tree growth on ridges is not affected by high-velocity winds. %Tree growth lasts longer in those latitudes than it does in the tropics. Paragraph 4There is still no universally agreed-on explanation for why there should be such a dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline. Various environmental factors may play a role. Too much snow, for example, can smother trees, and avalanches and snow creep can damage or destroy them. Late-lying snow reduces the effective growing season to the point where seedlings cannot establish themselves. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months. 9. Which of the sentences below best express the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? In correct choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. %Because of their deformed shapes at high altitudes, trees are not likely to be seriously harmed by the strong winds typical of those altitudes. %As altitude increases, the velocity of winds increase, leading to a serious decrease in the number of trees found at high altitudes. %The deformed shapes of trees at high altitudes show that wind velocity, which increase with altitude, can cause serious hardship for trees. %Increased wind velocity at high altitudes deforms the shapes of trees, and this may cause serious stress for trees. 10. In paragraph 4, what is the author s main purpose in the discussion of the dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline? %To argue that none of several environment factors that are believed to contribute to that phenomenon do in fact play a role in causing it. %To argue in support of one particular explanation of that phenomenon against several competing explanations. %To explain why the primary environmental factor responsible for that phenomenon has not yet been identified. %To present several environmental factors that may contribute to a satisfactory explanation of that phenomenon. Paragraph 6The most striking characteristic of the plants of the alpine zone is their low growth form. This enables them to avoid the worst rigors of high winds and permits them to make use of the higher temperatures immediately adjacent to the ground surface. In an area where low temperatures are limiting to life, the importance of the additional heat near the surface is crucial. The low growth form can also permit the plants to take advantage of the insulation provided by a winter snow cover. In the equatorial mountains the low growth form is less prevalent. 11. According to paragraph 6, all of the following statements are true of plants in the alpine zone EXCEPT: %Because they are low, they are less exposed to strong winds. %Because they are low, the winter snow cover gives them more protection from the extreme cold. %In the equatorial mountains, they tend to be lower than in mountains elsewhere. %Their low growth form keeps them closer to the ground, where there is more heat than further up. Paragraph 5Above the tree line there is a zone that is generally called alpine tundra. %Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of a fairly complete cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up the number and diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground with occasional mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants.% Some plants can even survive in favorable microhabitats above the snow line. The highest plants in the world occur at around 6,100 meters on Makalu in the Himalayas.% At this great height, rocks, warmed by the sun, melt small snowdrifts.% 12. Look at the four squares [%] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. This explains how, for example, alpine cushion plants have been found growing at an altitude of 6,180 meters. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. 13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. At the timberline, whether upper or lower, there is a profound change in the growth of trees and other plants. % % % Answer choices %Birch is one of the few species of tree that can survive in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. %There is no agreement among scientists as to exactly why plant growth is sharply different above and below the upper timberline. %The temperature at the upper timberline is probably more important in preventing tree growth than factors such as the amount of snowfall or the force of winds. %The geographical location of an upper timberline has an impact on both the types of trees found there and their physical characteristics. %High levels of ultraviolet light most likely play a greater role in determining tree growth at the upper timberline than do grazing animals such as the ibex. %Despite being adjacent to the timberline, the alpine tundra is an area where certain kinds of low trees can endure high winds and very low temperatures. ST{Hh 1. %4 2. %1 3. %2 4. %3 5. %3 6. %2 7. %2 8. %1 9. %3 10. %4 11. %3 12. %4 13. %2, 4, 6 Sыe q\ Nh&^Lu~v i 8^Nq\aW Nvhg0Rl ghvԂS/fNy^8^bgRSvlS0(WN*NWvݍyS gQASs|v0We h(gُyu}Tb__1\m1YN S NKNv/fNOwvLp(g0oITgrI0ُy%`lSv:SWy:N NLh&^Lu~bg(g~0(WYr^ev0W:SX[(W@w NLh&^Lu~ (Wُ̑1uN:ON4lRhgSbr^IS u(Wg NzOQsl o0 NLh&^Lu~ kYꖿ~ (Wp&^gؚ(Wg0WgNO0Ng0W0W:Svwms^b0Rr^qNp&^vwmb4500s|YNSnonp&^0W:Sv3500s|4500s|Y g NLh&^Lu~0h&^Lu~Q8^/f8^~h(g NNTYN NLh&^Lu~Ygzv`RsX-Nuv=Sh(gvk wQ gN[vOR06q (WR0W:S_N g1u=SSg~bvh&^Lu~0OY (WUlbŖvR0W:S fhh1\(Wh&^Lu~ N0 NLh&^Lu~vh(g_YmbfTSb_ $\vQ(W-Nؚ~^0W:Svh(g ُN0W:Svh(g__O(Wq\ N_fؚ (Wp&^0W:Svh(gR(Wq\7̑_fؚV:N-Nؚ~^0W:Sh&^Lu~SyꖆveTm^vq_T_'Y01uNq\7-NyꖆvSNc~e_ h(g__(Wq\ N_fؚ sSO/fu(W'YΘT+ vvW0W̑0(Wp&^0W:Sq\7f g)RNu V:Nq\7 Nfr^m0_\~ v^NY gfmvWX0 vMR؏l gN*NnfM Tvʑegf:NNHNO(Wh&^Lu~ NQsh(g\PbkuُybgRSvsa0YysXV }w0R\O(u OY yǏYOh(g NǏl )]Tygdkh(gey)wN gHeuc[ve hׂeluSY ΘO@wwmbvGSؚ XR XRh(gbSvSR _f>f ck/fُyΘ&^egvSR[h(g(Wؚ~^0W:SS_xub_0NNyf[[cQ @wwmbv NGS NeX:_v+}Y~0Αuq\I{Rirv>e{Q /f[h&^Lu~b_bvV }0bg͑vsXV }/f)n^ V:NYguc[*Ywv^Nl)n*YNO hThׂelEQRbq^ǏQc[0 (Wg(g~ N gN*Ny:Nؚq\ԂSv0W:S01uN'}(c@wh&^Lu~ ԂS N/fwLp(g0oPgTI0W0@wwmbvXRiryvpeϑTY7h'`OnQ\ v0RQs'Yϑzz0W4O@wfvԂӅT0Wcُ7hvO0W iir0 gN iiruSN(Wꖿ~N N g)Rv\sX-NuX[ NLu Nwmbgؚv iir/fQs(WUlbŖq\ NmQCSN~vs|vlaS\0(Wُ*Nؚ^ N 3IQ)nfǏv\wSN\\XS0 ؚq\ iirgzQvyrp/fvQNOwvub_`0ُyyrpONNYb_gv`Rv:_ΘsX v^N gRNNN)R(ueg0Whvؚ)n0(Wُ7hN*NNO)nP6Ru}Tv0W:S 0WhcOvY)n^/fsQ͑v0NOwvub_`_NSN.^R iirEQR)R(uQc[y@bcOvO)nsX0(WdS:Svq\ NNOwvub_`v^ N8^0 TPO-3 Architecture Architecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visual arts, architecture affects our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major ways. Architecture is a three-dimensional form. It utilizes space, mass, texture, line, light, and color. To be architecture, a building must achieve a working harmony with a variety of elements. Humans instinctively seek structures that will shelter and enhance their way of life. It is the work of architects to create buildings that are not simply constructions but also offer inspiration and delight. Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter, enrich space, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible. The client who pays for the building and defines its function is an important member of the architectural team. The mediocre design of many contemporary buildings can be traced to both clients and architects. In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them-even while building materials have changed dramatically. The worlds architectural structures have also been devised in relation to the objective limitations of materials. Structures can be analyzed in terms of how they deal with downward forces created by gravity. They are designed to withstand the forces of compression (pushing together), tension (pulling apart), bending, or a combination of these in different parts of the structure. Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes. Materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick. Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred years ago. Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body? a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, equipment, similar to the bodys vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early architecturesuch as igloos and adobe structuresthere was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one. Much of the worlds great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the worlds finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains, but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensively in aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. The arch is among the many important structural breakthroughs that have characterized architecture throughout the centuries.  Paragraph 1Architecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visual arts, architecture affects our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major ways. 1. According to paragraph 1, all of the following statements about architecture are true EXCEPT: %Architecture is visual art. %Architecture reflects the cultural values of its creators. %Architecture has both artistic and scientific dimensions. %Architecture has an indirect effect on life. Paragraph 2Architecture is a three-dimensional form. It utilizes space, mass, texture, line, light, and color. To be architecture, a building must achieve a working harmony with a variety of elements. Humans instinctively seek structures that will shelter and enhance their way of life. It is the work of architects to create buildings that are not simply constructions but also offer inspiration and delight. Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter, enrich space, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible. The client who pays for the building and defines its function is an important member of the architectural team. The mediocre design of many contemporary buildings can be traced to both clients and architects. 2.The word  feasible in the passage is closet in meaning to %in existence %without question %achievable %most likely 3. The word  enhance in the passage is closest in meaning to %protect %improve %organize %match Paragraph 3In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them-even while building materials have changed dramatically. The worlds architectural structures have also been devised in relation to the objective limitations of materials. Structures can be analyzed in terms of how they deal with downward forces created by gravity. They are designed to withstand the forces of compression (pushing together), tension (pulling apart), bending, or a combination of these in different parts of the structure. 4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. %Unchanging physical laws have limited the size and strength of buildings that can be made with materials discovered long ago. %Building materials have changed in order to increase architectural size and strength, but physical laws of structure have not changed. %When people first started to build, the structural methods used to provide strength and size were inadequate because they were not based on physical laws. %Unlike building materials, the methods of support used in architecture have not changed over time because they are based on physical laws. 5. The word  devised in the passage is closest in meaning to %Combined %Created %Introduced %Suggested Paragraph 4Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes. Materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick. Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred ago. 6. The word  integral is closet in meaning to %Essential %Variable %Practical %Independent 7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about materials used in the construction of buildings? %Because new building materials are hard to find, construction techniques have changed very little from past generations. %The availability of suitable building materials no longer limits the types of structures that may be built. %The primary building materials that are available today are wood, stone, and brick. %Architects in earlier times did not have enough building materials to enclose large spaces. 8. In paragraph 4, what does the author imply about modern buildings? %They occupy much less space than buildings constructed one hundred years ago. %They are not very different from the building of a few generations ago. %They weigh less in relation to their size than buildings constructed one hundred years ago. %They take a long time to build as a result of their complex construction methods. Paragraph 5: Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body; a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, equipment, similar to the bodys vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early architecturesuch as igloos and adobe structuresthere was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one. 9. Which of the following correctly characterizes the relationship between the human body and architecture that is described in paragraph5? %Complex equipment inside buildings is the one element in modern architecture that resembles a component of the human body. %The components in early buildings were similar to three particular elements of the human body. %Modern buildings have components that are as likely to change as the human body is. %In general, modern buildings more closely resemble the human body than earlier buildings do. Paragraph 6: Much of the world s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the worlds finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains, but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensively in aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. The arch is among the many important structural breakthroughs that have characterized architecture throughout the centuries. 10. The word arduous in the passage is closest in meaning to %Difficult %Necessary %Skilled %Shared 11. Why does the author include a description of how the  doorways and windows of Machu Picchu were constructed? %To indicate that the combined skeletons and skins of the stone buildings of Machu Picchu were similar to igloos and adobe structures %To indicate the different kinds of stones that had to be cut to build Machu Picchu %To provide an illustration of the kind of construction that was required before arches were invented %To explain how ancient builders reduced the amount of time necessary to construct buildings from stone. 12According to paragraph6, which of the following statements is true of the arch? %The Romans were the first people to use the stone arch. %The invention of the arch allowed new architectural forms to be developed. %The arch worked by distributing the structural of a building toward the center of the arch. %The Romans followed earlier practices in their use of arches. Paragraph 5% Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body; a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, equipment, similar to the body s vital organs and systems. % The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. %Of course in early architecture such as igloos and adobe structures there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one. % 13Look at the four squares [%] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. However, some modern architectural designs, such as those using folded plates of concreter or air-inflated structures, are again unifying skeleton and skin. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. 14Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Architecture uses forms and space to express cultural values. % % % Answer choices %Architects seek to create buildings that are both visually appealing and well suited for human use. %Over the course of the history of building, innovations in material and methods of construction have given architects ever greater freedom to express themselves. %Throughout history buildings have been constructed like human bodies, needing distinct  organ systems in order to function. %Both clients and architects are responsible for the mediocre designs of some modern buildings. %Modern buildings tend to lack the beauty of ancient stone buildings such as those of Machu Picchu. %The discovery and use of the arch typifies the way in which architecture advances by developing more efficient types of structures. ST{Hh 1. % 4 2. % 3 3. %2 4. % 4 5. % 2 6. % 1 7. % 2 8. % 3 9. % 4 10. % 1 11. % 3 12. % 2 13. % 4 14. %1, 2, 6 Sыe ^Q{ ^Q{/fN蕾~gvz/gTyf[ QN[(uba_vvv(u~geg~~TSVzz0V:N^Q{nNN{|vBlT?ag T7h_NSNnZi0W OeSNenSwgeg/ed Nbvw4Y O蕌TzvO^b:NS0^N_{(WKQ gw4YvirtP6RNSe^Q{b__SU\KNMRSfQ^Q{~g ُ1\/fbb_~g sSgR1uRkvw4YbxWWgbv'_b_~g0bgR(W0W-NwmegeS-N(ueg^0W N4l n FOSWlNgHQ_ST^lv)R(u[\O:N0W N^Q{v~g NN[UN1uRkvwWW~bvJSWb_b0\O:N荊zzvNye_ bSNk4ls^*jh/edf'Yv͑ϑ0[O_vQ NvSRly0R$NO 1u$NOWvvRegbbSR0 bS/fя~vt^egOY͑^Q{~gvz4xKNN0 Depletion of the Ogallala Aquifer The vast grasslands of the High Plains in the central United States were settled by farmers and ranchers in the 1880s. This region has a semiarid climate, and for 50 years after its settlement, it supported a low-intensity agricultural economy of cattle ranching and wheat farming. In the early twentieth century, however, it was discovered that much of the High Plains was underlain by a huge aquifer (a rock layer containing large quantities of groundwater). This aquifer was named the Ogallala aquifer after the Ogallala Sioux Indians, who once inhabited the region. The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. Water from rains and melting snows has been accumulating in the Ogallala for the past 30,000 years. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wells now tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here. This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge ratethat is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supplyhas caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. In the 1930s, wells encountered plentiful water at a depth of about 15 meters; currently, they must be dug to depths of 45 to 60 meters or more. In places, the water table is declining at a rate of a meter a year, necessitating the periodic deepening of wells and the use of ever-more-powerful pumps. It is estimated that at current withdrawal rates, much of the aquifer will run dry within 40 years. The situation is most critical in Texas, where the climate is driest, the greatest amount of water is being pumped, and the aquifer contains the least water. It is projected that the remaining Ogallala water will, by the year 2030, support only 35 to 40 percent of the irrigated acreage in Texas that is supported in 1980. The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. Other, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire regions water supplies. In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century.  Paragraph 1The vast grasslands of the High Plains in the central United States were settled by farmers and ranchers in the 1880 s. This region has a semiarid climate, and for 50 years after its settlement, it supported a low-intensity agricultural economy of cattle ranching and wheat farming. In the early twentieth century, however, it was discovered that much of the High Plains was underlain by a huge aquifer (a rock layer containing large quantities of groundwater). This aquifer was named the Ogallala aquifer after the Ogallala Sioux Indians, who once inhabited the region. 1According to paragraph 1, which of the following statements about the High Plains is true? %Until farmers and ranchers settled there in the 1880 s, the High Plains had never been inhabited. %The climate of the High Plains is characterized by higher-than-average temperatures. %The large aquifer that lies underneath the High Plains was discovered by the Ogallala Sioux Indians. %Before the early 1900 s there was only a small amount of farming and ranching in the High Plains. Paragraph 2The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. Water from rains and melting snows has been accumulating in the Ogallala for the past 30,000 years. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. 2. According to paragraph 2, all of the following statements about the Ogallala aquifer are true EXCEPT: %The aquifer stretches from South Dakota to Texas. %The aquifer s water comes from underground springs. %Water has been gathering in the aquifer for 30,000 years. %The aquifer s water is stored in a layer of sandstone. 3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. %Despite the current impressive size of the Ogallala aquifer, the region s climate keeps the rates of water addition very small. %Although the aquifer has been adding water at the rate of only half a centimeter a year, it will eventually accumulate enough water of fill Lake Huron. %Because of the region s present climatic conditions, water is being added each year to the aquifer. %Even when the region experiences unfortunate climatic conditions, the rates of addition of water continue to increase. Paragraph 3: The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wells now tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here. 4. The word  ensuing in the passage is closest in meaning to %Continuing %Surprising %Initial %Subsequent 5. In paragraph 3, why does the author provide the information that 40 percent of American cattle are fattened in the High Plains? %To suggest that crop cultivation is not the most important part of the economy of the High Plains %To indicate that not all economic activity in the High Plains is dependent on irrigation %To provide another example of how water from the Ogallala has transformed the economy of the High Plains %To contrast cattle-fattening practices in the High Plains with those used in other region of the United States Paragraph 4This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supplyhas caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. In the 1930s, wells encountered plentiful water at a depth of about 15 meters; currently, they must be dug to depths of 45 to 60 meters or more. In places, the water table is declining at a rate of a meter a year, necessitating the periodic deepening of wells and the use of ever-more-powerful pumps. It is estimated that at current withdrawal rates, much of the aquifer will run dry within 40 years. The situation is most critical in Texas, where the climate is driest, the greatest amount of water is being pumped, and the aquifer contains the least water. It is projected that the remaining Ogallala water will, by the year 2030, support only 35 to 40 percent of the irrigated acreage in Texas that is supported in 1980. 6. The word unprecedented in the passage is closest in meaning to %Difficult to control %Without any restriction %Unlike anything in the past %Rapidly expanding 7. The word  virtually in the passage is closest in meaning to %Clearly %Perhaps %Frequently %Almost 8. According to paragraph 4, all of following are consequences of the heavy use of the Ogallala aquifer for irrigation EXCEPT: %The recharge rate of the aquifer is decreasing. %Water tables in the region are becoming increasingly lower. %Wells now have to be dug to much greater depths than before. %Increasingly powerful pumps are needed to draw water from the aquifer. 9. According to paragraph 4, compared with all other states that use Ogallala water for irrigation, Texas %Has the greatest amount of farmland being irrigated with Ogallala water %Contains the largest amount of Ogallala water underneath the soil %Is expected to face the worst water supply crisis as the Ogallala runs dry %Uses the least amount of Ogallala water for its irrigation needs Paragraph 5The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. Other, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region s water supplies. 10. The word  inevitable in the passage is closest in meaning to %Unfortunate %Predictable %Unavoidable %Final 11Paragraph 5 mentions which of the following as a source of difficulty for some farmers who try to conserve water? %Crops that do not need much water are difficult to grow in the High Plains. %Farmers who grow crops that need a lot of water make higher profits. %Irrigating less frequently often leads to crop failure. %Few farmers are convinced that the aquifer will eventually run dry. Paragraph 6In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century. 12According to paragraph 6, what is the main disadvantage of the proposed plans to transport river water to the High Plains? %The rivers cannot supply sufficient water for the farmer s needs. %Increased irrigation costs would make the products too expensive. %The costs of using capillary water for irrigation will increase. %Farmers will be forced to switch to genetically engineered crops. Paragraph 5 6The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water.% Other, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton.% The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region s water supplies.% In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. %Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed are into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century. 13Look at the four squares [%] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. But even if uncooperative farmers were to join in the conservation efforts, this would only delay the depletion of the aquifer. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. 14Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The Ogallala is a large underground source of water in the High Plains region of the United States. % % % Answer choices %The use of the Ogallala for irrigation has allowed the High Plains to become one of the most productive agricultural regions in the United States. %Given the aquifer s low recharge rate, its use for irrigation is causing water tables to drop and will eventually lead to its depletion. %Releasing capillary water and introducing drought-resistant crops are less-promising solutions to the water supply crisis than bringing in river water %The periodic deepening of wells and the use of more-powerful pumps would help increase the natural recharge rate of the Ogallala. %In Texas, a great deal of attention is being paid to genetic engineering because it is there that the most critical situation exists. %Several solutions to the upcoming water supply crisis have been proposed, but none of them promises to keep the costs of irrigation low. ST{Hh 1. %4 2. %2 3. %1 4. %4 5. %3 6. %3 7. %4 8. %1 9. %3 10. %3 11. %2 12. %2 13. %3 14. %1, 2, 6 Sыe eYRbbĄ4lB\vgz 19N~80t^N (WV-NS'Ys^Sv^IS N[E\@wQlTQ:W;NN0ُ̑ g@wJSr^evlP (WNN[E\50t^T [/edNN*NN\ugrNT\y i:N;NvNO[^QN~Nm06q (W20N~R NNSsS'Ys^Sv'Y Nb/f]'YvĄ4lB\+T g'Yϑ0W N4lv\B\ 0ُ*NĄ4lB\Vf~(Wُ̑[E\ǏveYRbbςepS,{[N _ T y\OeYRbbĄ4lB\0 eYRbbĄ4lB\^\Nx\~g (WN_KQ(e]S0RWSyTX]v0W N~^N583000s^elQ̑04lT30000t^MRO_Y(WeYRbbĄy0nc0O eYRbbĄ4lB\v+T4lϑNkXnO&OVn FO Nx^v/f (WvMR0W:SJSr^evlPagN N eYRbbĄ4lB\vĄ4lRgNO kt^NJSSs|]S0 20N~30t^NR eYRbbckYNr^eeg NNSbQN,{NSN0LpnQNvŏib _ yr+R/f20N~50t^NKNT 9eSNُN0W:Sv~Nm0vMRNN]~(WeYRbb0W:SqQ_QN100000YSN0eU4lϑ0R4500000GSvsNLpnY b_bNN*NWb_~\\Oir:N;Nvof‰0eYRbbĄ4lB\/edNS'Ys^S0W:SVh0ؚ|0\0ss|vLpnBl0dkY V~vRKNVAS7r{Qv[r(Wُ̑0 Q0RQNNl geEQs[( Nl g6q4lDnۏLeEQ ُy gP0W N4lDnMR@b*g gvSU\]~_wN0W:S0W N4lMOv%`gR NM0(W20N~30t^N N N15s|1\ g0N[v4lDn s(W _{cc0R45s|0R60s|ufmv0WeMbL0 gv0We0W N4lMOv NM^u󁾏0RNkt^1s| ONNhTg'`vRm4lNv^O(uf gRvv4ll0 csNv NM^eg0O 'YR0W NĄ4l\(W40t^Q=\0ُysa(WlPgr^ev_KQ(e]$\:N%N͑0'Yϑv4lN0W Nbw Ą4lB\+T4lϑg\0nc0O 0R2030t^ _KQ(e]YO NveYRbb+T4lS/ec1980t^Lpnbyv30%0R40%0 QlN[elMQveYRbbĄ4lB\gzvS^T Nv T0_YN]~_Y\ՋǏMNOLpnsb9ey4l\v^e4lB\ NeWX-Nvk~{4l0sSOُ7hLKN gHe b4lb,gOS0RSegv N P0WV] z_NOǏ~~xSbe\OireTy .^R㉳QR0eُ!k4lDnqS:gvg~~gYUO >f6q S'Ys^S0W:SLpn4lDnQ_N NOP20N~-NgQNA~cegv7hEQv^N^NN0 The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term succession to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changesin plant numbers and the mix of speciesare cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years. An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a years time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem. At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests. The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what stability means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state. Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stabilityjust the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a childs tricycle. Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the communitys resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the patchiness of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.  Paragraph 1: Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term succession to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes in plant numbers and the mix of species are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years. 1. The word  particular in the passage is closest in meaning to %Natural %Final %Specific %Complex 2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities? %They occur at the end of a succession. %They last longer than any other type of community. %The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change. %They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time. Paragraph 2: An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem. 3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond? %Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system. %The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced. %Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next. %A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystems properties Paragraph 3: At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather of pests. 4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystems? %Pioneer communities %Climax communities %Single-crop farmlands %Successional plant communities Paragraph 4: The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what  stability means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state. 5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated? %The reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear. %Ecologists often confuse the word  stability with the word  resilience. %The exact meaning of the word  stability is debated by ecologists. %There are many different answers to ecological questions. 6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities? %They are more resilient than pioneer communities. %They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities. %They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances. %They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time. Paragraph 5: Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stabilityjust the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a childs tricycle.) 7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests? %They become less stable as they mature. %They support many species when they reach climax. %They are found in temperate zones. %They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages. 8. The word  guarantee in the passage is closest in meaning to %Increase %Ensure %Favor %Complicate 9. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that  (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child s tricycle) ? %To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example %To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations %To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity %To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems Paragraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the communitys resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. 10. The word pales in the passage is closest in meaning to %Increases proportionally %Differs %Loses significance %Is common Paragraph 7Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the  patchiness of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact. 11Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. %Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness. %Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity. %Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments. %A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms. 12The word  adjacent in the passage is closest in meaning to %Foreign %Stable %Fluid %Neighboring Paragraph 6: %Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. %The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. %We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. % 13Look at the four squares [%] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. 14Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change over time. % % % Answer choices %The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation. %A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem. %The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability. %Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems. %Disagreements over the meaning of the term  stability make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems. %The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans. ST{Hh 1. %3 2. %3 3. %1 4. %2 5. %3 6. %2 7. %3 8. %2 9. %1 10. %3 11. %4 12. %4 13. %2 14. %2, 3, 5 Sыe u`|~vg3z[ iirSOSN1u0WZƖ NNyrkv~gSQNZƖ:SWvwQSOSS0u`f[[O(u of egʑ iir=Tu`|~@wecy@bSuvSS0of-Nv,{N*N=y\OHQ = YNofgT*NguX[v=y:Nvg=0HQ =T'}c@wv iir=vSShTg/fN10R500t^ NI{ iirpeϑTmTy{|peϑvSS/fbabay/}v0vg=,g_N9eS FOvQSShTgǏ500t^0 sNN*Nxvz`lXXvu`f[OSs`lXX(WNt^S_-Nv[ /f NSv0*N+R|{|Sfbc FONt^Nt^|v;`peNN0_N1\/f u`|~ꁫv'`(k~bu`|~vUS*NuirSOf:N3z[0 u`f[[NN^:NiryvY7h'`Ou`|~3z[ u`|~iryY7hRu`|~3z[0Ǐ‰[_Qv~/ecNُ*N‰p gcENvvg=8^kHQ =wQYf:N YBgvߘirQTfYviry0u`f[[[N_Qv~/fvpu`|~v3z['`f>fSQNNNv YBgS z^0>N*NgzvOP[ (WUSN\OirvQ0u-N Nt^vv`R)YlbUSN[kveQO1\SNgdk@b g\Oir0NdkvS (WN*N YBgvvg=̑ Y)n&^hg NNOSNb_eglPT[kveQO0 N{`7h u`|~3z['`v^8^ YBg0HQ N/f@b gvu`f[[^ T 3z[ v+TIN03z['`SN{US0W[IN:N:ONSS0Yg/fُ7hv݋ vg=\Ɖ:Ng3z[v V:N9hnc[IN NN@wecy SS/fg\0SY 3z['`_NSNLu[:Nu`|~(W~SN%N͑4xOWKNTV YSv^ kYkp~p0ُy3z['`_Ny\O9_'`0(Wُy`Q N vg=\/fg1_Tg N3z[v V:NNNSpe~vt^eMbb` Y0Rvpr`0 sSO/fُy[IN:N{US0W:ONSSv3z['`v^^;`/fNgY7hviryT|weg0\(W)n&^0W:S O~8^(WofǏ z-NSsgYiry N/f(Wvg=-N0OY ~hgNebq vQ-NvirypeϑNSUS*NiryvpeϑOQ\0;`veg Y7h'`,gv^ NO3z['` u`|~vpef[!jW_NSN_Q T7hv~0N,eg N*Nf YBgv|~SkN*N{USv|~f[f4xOWN*NASNv[fkN*Ni[P[v Nnff[f_cOW 0 u`f[[Nf`_nZi0R^TNV } gRNOb=vb` Y V:NNLuT0Wvvg=V:NN{|;mR mS0R%N͑v_cOWbkOW01\PVS#Wwm&Okpq\vspUS@b bv4xOW (WN{|;mR[sX bvv4xOWbMR_Nvb_~0bN_{N[=bb4xOWTb` YegTN/fg͑v0 s(Wv_Yu`f[[N:N vg=v[gv3z['`v^^egNY7h'` /fegꁯsXv e YSSvsXk~NvsXf g)RNYy g:gSOvuX[0S_0WirympNT l N1\Ov=vylSN0sSO/fSNy N Tviry NN_NSNkXeN]mp~uirvzz: v^OcߘirQv[te0 Online Test Opportunists and Competitors Growth, reproduction, and daily metabolism all require an organism to expend energy. The expenditure of energy is essentially a process of budgeting, just as finances are budgeted. If all of ones money is spent on clothes, there may be none left to buy food or go to the movies. Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction. All organisms, therefore, allocate energy to growth, reproduction, maintenance, and storage. No choice is involved; this allocation comes as part of the genetic package from the parents. Maintenance for a given body design of an organism is relatively constant. Storage is important, but ultimately that energy will be used for maintenance, reproduction, or growth. Therefore the principal differences in energy allocation are likely to be between growth and reproduction. Almost all of an organisms energy can be diverted to reproduction, with very little allocated to building the body. Organisms at this extreme are opportunists. At the other extreme are competitors, almost all of whose resources are invested in building a huge body, with a bare minimum allocated to reproduction. Dandelions are good examples of opportunists. Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catch the wind, the plants are no bigger than they need be, their stems are hollow, and all the rigidity comes from their water content. Thus, a minimum investment has been made in the body that becomes a platform for seed dispersal. These very short-lived plants reproduce prolifically; that is to say they provide a constant rain of seed in the neighborhood of parent plants. A new plant will spring up wherever a seed falls on a suitable soil surface, but because they do not build big bodies, they cannot compete with other plants for space, water, or sunlight. These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy. Opportunists must constantly invade new areas to compensate for being displaced by more competitive species. Human landscapes of lawns, fields, or flowerbeds provide settings with bare soil and a lack of competitors that are perfect habitats for colonization by opportunists. Hence, many of the strongly opportunistic plants are the common weeds of fields and gardens. Because each individual is short-lived, the population of an opportunist species is likely to be adversely affected by drought, bad winters, or floods. If their population is tracked through time, it will be seen to be particularly unstablesoaring and plummeting in irregular cycles. The opposite of an opportunist is a competitor. These organisms tend to have big bodies, are long-lived, and spend relatively little effort each year on reproduction. An oak tree is a good example of a competitor. A massive oak claims its ground for 200 years or more, outcompeting all other would-be canopy trees by casting a dense shade and drawing up any free water in the soil. The leaves of an oak tree taste foul because they are rich in tannins, a chemical that renders them distasteful or indigestible to many organisms. The tannins are part of the defense mechanism that is essential to longevity. Although oaks produce thousands of acorns, the investment in a crop of acorns is small compared with the energy spent on building leaves, trunk, and roots. Once an oak tree becomes established, it is likely to survive minor cycles of drought and even fire. A population of oaks is likely to be relatively stable through time, and its survival is likely to depend more on its ability to withstand the pressures of competition or predation than on its ability to take advantage of chance events. It should be noted, however, that the pure opportunist or pure competitor is rare in nature, as most species fall between the extremes of a continuum, exhibiting a blend of some opportunistic and some competitive characteristics.  Paragraph 1: Growth, reproduction, and daily metabolism all require an organism to expend energy. The expenditure of energy is essentially a process of budgeting, just as finances are budgeted. If all of ones money is spent on clothes, there may be none left to buy food or go to the movies. Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction. 1. The word squander in the passage is closest in meaning to % Extend %Transform % Activate % Waste 2. The word none in the passage refers to % Food % Plant or animal % Energy % Big body 3. In paragraph 1, the author explains the concept of energy expenditure by % Identifying types of organisms that became extinct % Comparing the scientific concept to a familiar human experience % Arguing that most organisms conserve rather than expend energy % Describing the processes of growth, reproduction, and metabolism Paragraph 3Almost all of an organism s energy can be diverted to reproduction, with very little allocated to building the body. Organisms at this extreme are opportunists. At the other extreme are competitors, almost all of whose resources are invested in building a huge body, with a bare minimum allocated to reproduction. 4. According to the passage, the classification of organisms as opportunists or competitors is determined by % How the genetic information of an organism is stored and maintained % The way in which the organism invests its energy resources % Whether the climate in which the organism lives is mild or extreme % The variety of natural resources the organism consumes in its environment Paragraph 4Dandelions are good examples of opportunists. Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catch the wind, the plants are no bigger than they need be, their stems are hollow, and all the rigidity comes from their water content. Thus, a minimum investment has been made in the body that becomes a platform for seed dispersal. These very short-lived plants reproduce prolifically; that is to say they provide a constant rain of seed in the neighborhood of parent plants. A new plant will spring up wherever a seed falls on a suitable soil surface, but because they do not build big bodies, they cannot compete with other plants for space, water, or sunlight. These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy. 5. The word dispersal in the passage is closest in meaning to %Development % Growth % Distribution % Protection 6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. %Because their seeds grow in places where competing plants are no longer present, dandelions are classified as opportunists. %Dandelions are called opportunists because they contribute to the natural processes of erosion and the creation of gaps in the forest canopy. %The term opportunists apply to plants whose seeds fall in places where they can compete with the seeds of other plants. %The term opportunists apply to plants whose falling seeds are removed by natural processes. Paragraph 7The opposite of an opportunist is a competitor. These organisms tend to have big bodies, are long-lived, and spend relatively little effort each year on reproduction. An oak tree is a good example of a competitor. A massive oak claims its ground for 200 years or more, outcompeting all other would-be canopy trees by casting a dense shade and drawing up any free water in the soil. The leaves of an oak tree taste foul because they are rich in tannins, a chemical that renders them distasteful or indigestible to many organisms. The tannins are part of the defense mechanism that is essential to longevity. Although oaks produce thousands of acorns, the investment in a crop of acorns is small compared with the energy spent on building leaves, trunk, and roots. Once an oak tree becomes established, it is likely to survive minor cycles of drought and even fire. A population of oaks is likely to be relatively stable through time, and its survival is likely to depend more on its ability to withstand the pressures of competition or predation than on its ability to take advantage of chance events. It should be noted, however, that the pure opportunist or pure competitor is rare in nature, as most species fall between the extremes of a continuum, exhibiting a blend of some opportunistic and some competitive characteristics. 7. The word massive in the passage is closest in meaning to % Huge % Ancient % Common % Successful 8. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 7 as contributing to the longevity of an oak tree EXCEPT % The capacity to create shade % Leaves containing tannin % The ability to withstand mild droughts and fire % The large number of acorns the tree produces 9. According to the passage, oak trees are considered competitors because % They grow in areas free of opportunists % They spend more energy on their leaves, trunks and roots than on their acorns % Their population tends to increase or decrease in irregular cycles % Unlike other organisms, they do not need much water or sunlight 10. In paragraph 7, the author suggests that most species of organisms % Are primarily opportunists % Are primarily competitors % Begin as opportunists and evolve into competitors % Have some characteristics of opportunists and some of competitors Paragraph 5Opportunists must constantly invade new areas to compensate for being displaced by more competitive species. Human landscapes of lawns, fields, or flowerbeds provide settings with bare soil and a lack of competitors that are perfect habitats for colonization by opportunists. %Hence, many of the strongly opportunistic plants are the common weeds of fields and gardens. % Because each individual is short-lived, the population of an opportunist species is likely to be adversely affected by drought, bad winters, or floods. %If their population is tracked through time, it will be seen to be particularly unstable soaring and plummeting in irregular cycles. % 11. Look at the four squares % that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Such episodic events will cause a population of dandelions, for example, to vary widely. Where would the sentence best fit? 12. Directions: Complete the table by matching the phrases below Directions: Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the type of organism to which they relate. TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 4 points. OpportunistsCompetitors INCLUDEPICTURE "http://docs.google.com/a/liuwenyong.com/File?id=ddwbb8hr_44dtd3h3f9_b" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://docs.google.com/a/liuwenyong.com/File?id=ddwbb8hr_44dtd3h3f9_b" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://docs.google.com/a/liuwenyong.com/File?id=ddwbb8hr_44dtd3h3f9_b" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://docs.google.com/a/liuwenyong.com/File?id=ddwbb8hr_44dtd3h3f9_b" \* MERGEFORMATINET  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://docs.google.com/a/liuwenyong.com/File?id=ddwbb8hr_44dtd3h3f9_b" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://docs.google.com/a/liuwenyong.com/File?id=ddwbb8hr_44dtd3h3f9_b" \* MERGEFORMATINET   INCLUDEPICTURE "http://docs.google.com/a/liuwenyong.com/File?id=ddwbb8hr_44dtd3h3f9_b" \* MERGEFORMATINET Answer Choices %Vary frequently the amount of energy they spend in body maintenance % Have mechanisms for protecting themselves from predation %Succeed in locations where other organisms have been removed %Have relatively short life spans %Invest energy in the growth of large, strong structures %Have populations that are unstable in response to climate conditions %Can rarely find suitable soil for reproduction %Produce individuals that can withstand changes in the environmental conditions %Reproduce in large numbers ST{Hh 1. %4 2. %3 3. %2 4. %2 5. %3 6. %1 7. %1 8. %4 9. %2 10.%4 11.%3 12.%Opportunists3, 4, 6, 9 %Competitors2, 5, 8 Sыe :gO;NINTzN @b guirǏmϑeg[su0A~kTkeveHN"0ϑvmN9h,g Neg /fN*N;NSOۏLϑ{vǏ z Y T"?e{0YgN*NN@b gv(uegpNc g S1\l-pNߘirb w5uq_N0 T7h R iir N\@b gvϑjm9(Wu N YgNNl gYYOvϑ(uNA~k HN[_\pTmp~0 Vdk @b guirSOO\]vϑۏLRM(uNu0A~k0~|u}TTۏLPY0[Nl g b ُyRMe_/feg NNNW OWVvNR0~|u}T[NN*Nyr[uirvSO/fv[R`[v0PY_͑ FOPYvϑg~\(uN~|u}T0A~kbu0Vdk ϑRM Nv;N N T1\(WNuTA~kKN0 N*NuirSO@b gvϑQNNSNl(uNA~k W,gl gY\ϑRM(uNu0YNُ*NgzvuirSOy\O :gO;NIN 0YNSN*Ngzv/f zN  zN QNN\vQ@b gvϑ(uNuN*N^'Yv N(ugNOP^vϑۏLA~k0 lQ/f :gO;NIN xQWOP[0lQvyP[v4YR}Yu0RؚQ0Wbc0RΘvؚ^ NNvSOW_NR}Y/f[NvgNO:\[ /f-Nzzv NNǏSOQ4lReg~cꁫvlx^0lQ[SOgNOP^ϑvRM O_NNb:NN*Nce^yP[vs^S0ُN[}Twfv iir'YϑA~kُ1\/f NN(WkSOvhTV NN:WyP[0NeyP[=(WNTuvWXhb evu}TSOOOOŏu FO/f V:NNNbvSOv^ N'Y VdkelNvQN iirzNzz04lb3IQ0ُN iiry:N:gO;NIN V:NNNO`vQyP[=eQNzNN]~'Y6qmplNv0Weu b;m YONvl\0q\)]KNYb(W1uNh(gP N (WhgQB\-Nb_bvzzYI{0 :gO;NIN_{ NeOeQevW NbmfwQzNRviry[NNv$cQQ0N]IjW00u0WbWcOvIQyyvW0W NSl gzNvsX/f :gO;NIN [vho`0W0Vdk NN0u0WTV-N8^vBgIY/fduA~kv:gO;NIN iir0 V:Nk*N*NSOv[}Twf :gO;NIN iirvpeϑ_SS0Rr^e0v`RvQ)Y)Ylb*m4lI{ N)RV }vq_T0ߍ*[NNke 1\OSs[Nvpeϑyr+R N3z[ (W NĉRhTgQ٘GSTf̍0 N:gO;NINv[^v/fzN0ُNuirSO__ gb g^'Yv0[}Tv^Nkt^(u(WA~k Nbvϑv[\0ajh/fxQWv zN N]'Yvajh`Snc[v0W200t^ufEN Ǐ6R Sm[vhkT8T6eWX-NNUOYYO4lRq@b gSvQB\h(g0ajhvhS_ vQ-N[+T9N[x [O_YuirSOa0R NbelmS09N[x/fO_h[v͑2kS:g6RvNR0}6qajhSNNupeNCSvajP[ FO/f [N['YϑvajP[beQvϑ T(uNhS0hr^T9huvϑvk {v_NNvQ_0Neajhb (WwhTgvr^eukp~p-N[Y{fX[;m0ajhvpeϑ(WNkegQ